Zingiber officinale Roscoe

SCIENTIFIC NAME:
Zingiber officinale Roscoe

FAMILY NAME:
Zingiberaceae

COMMON NAME:
Ginger

Evidence for Efficacy (Human Data)

Clinical Trials (43)

Observational Studies/Case Reports (15)

Traditional and Folk Use (47)

Safety Data

Adverse Effects & Toxicity (14)

Interactions (3)

Contraindications (0)

Evidence of Activity

Animal Studies (101)

Pharmacodynamics (136)

Analytical Chemistry (56)

Pharmacokinetics (ADME) (6)

Genetics & Molecular Biology (14)

Formulas/Blends

Methods of Preparation (17)

Patents (32)

Folk Blends (component) (0)

Contemporary Mixtures (component) (0)

Other Information

Pictures & Distribution Maps (1)

Cultivation, Conservation & Ecology (11)

Related Links (8)

Dynamic Updates

Live PubMed Searches (15)

History of Records

History of Record (1)

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EVIDENCE FOR EFFICACY (HUMAN DATA)

Clinical Trials

Recent trials suggest ginger shows considerable anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-platelet, hypotensive and hypolipidemic effect in in vitro and animal studies. Human trials with dosages of 5 g or more demonstrated significant anti-platelet activity. Nicoll 2009

A double-blind, placebo-controlled study conducted on 59 elderly persons showed that aroma-massage therapy using aromatic essential oil (1% Zingiber officinale and 0.5% Citrus sinesis) seems to have potential as an alternative method for short-term knee pain relief. Yip 2008

A phase II/III randomized, dose-finding, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trial is currently being conducted by private practice oncology groups to assess the efficacy of ginger for nausea associated with chemotherapy for cancer. Hickok 2007

Preliminary data of 19 randomized controlled trials support the efficacy of Chaste tree fruit in the treatment of premenstrual syndrome, Ginger in the treatment of hyperemesis gravidarum and Cimicifuga racemosa in the treatment of menopausal hot flushes. [Article in Hebrew] Ben-Arye 2006

Four of 6 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) (n = 246) showed superiority of ginger over placebo and aother 2 RCTs (n = 429) indicated that ginger was as effective as the reference drug (vitamin B6) in relieving the severity of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy. Borrelli 2005

[Ginger: an essential oil for shortening labour?] Calvert 2005

Continued dosing with ginkgo and ginger at recommended doses for 7 days after administration of the 25 mg dose of warfarin does not affect clotting status, pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics of warfarin in 12 healthy male subjects. Jiang 2005

A controlled drug trial with 90 patients demonstrates the potential efficacy and safety of RA- 11 a poly herbal preparation containing Zingiber officinale in the symptomatic treatment of osteoarthritis knees over 32 weeks of therapy. Chopra 2004

The identification of six randomized controlled trials including 538 patients investigating ginger to prevent postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) revealed that ginger is not a clinically relevant antiemetic in the PONV setting. [Article in German] Morin 2004

A randomized, controlled equivalence trial involving 291 women less than 16 weeks pregnant in Australia showed that ginger was equivalent to vitamin B6 in reducing nausea (mean difference 0.2, 90% confidence interval [CI] -0.3, 0.8), retching (mean difference 0.3; 90% CI -0.0, 0.6) and vomiting. Smith 2004

Two different oral doses of ginger in a randomized, double-blinded trial failed to reduce the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting in 180 patients who underwent gynecologic laparoscopy. Eberhart 2003

Ginger was found to reduce hyperglycemia-evoked gastric dysrhythmias in 22 healthy humans, and it acts by blunting the production of prostaglandins rather than inhibiting their action. Gonlachanvit 2003

Pretreatment with ginger (1,000 and 2,000 mg) in 13 volunteers with a history of motion sickness, in a crossover-design, double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled study effectively reduced the nausea, tachygastric activity, and plasma vasopressin release induced by circular vection. Lien 2003

Ginger was found to be effective [2 capsules each contain 0.5 g of ginger powder] in prevention of nausea in 80 patients who underwent outpatient gynecological laparoscopy. Pongrojpaw 2003

Ginger has a mild effect in the treatment of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy in 187 pregnancies and did not increase the rates of major foetal malformations above the baseline rate of 1% to 3%. Portnoi 2003

The ginger (500 mg) and vitamin B6 (10 mg) reduced the nausea scores from 5.0 (SD, 1.99) to 3.6 (SD, 2.48) and 5.3 (SD, 2.08) to 3.3 (SD, 2.07) respectively in 64 women with nausea and vomiting of pregnancy at or before 16 weeks of gestation. Sripramote 2003

Treatment of Zintona EC (a ginger extract) in twenty-nine patients (6 men and 23 women) with symptomatic gonarthritis, was as effective as placebo during first 3 months, but at the end of 6 months, ginger extract group showed superiority over placebo group. Wigler 2003

Treatment of Zintona EC (a ginger extract) in 29 patients (6 men and 23 women) with symptomatic gonarthritis, was as effective as placebo during first 3 months, but at the end of 6 months, ginger extract group showed superiority over placebo group. Wigler 2003

Ginger extract at 125 mg four times per day for 4 days was found to be a useful treatment option in 120 women less than 20 weeks pregnant, suffering from morning sickness. Willetts 2003

The ingestion of 1g of ginger in syrup in a divided dose daily was found to be useful in some patients, among the 26 subjects experiencing nausea and vomiting in the first trimester of pregnancy. Keating 2002

Supplementation of 5 gm of ginger powder with 50 gm of fat meal to 30 healthy adult volunteers, not only prevented the fall in fibrinolytic activity but also increased it. Verma 2001

Oral ginger 1 g per day for 4 days was found to be effective for relieving the severity of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy in 32 women with 17 weeks' gestation. No adverse effect of ginger on pregnancy outcome was detected. Vutyavanich 2001

A randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study of ginger extracts and ibuprofen in patients with osteoarthritis of the hip or knee showed a ranking in the order of Ibuprofen>ginger extract>placebo. Bliddal 2000

Among 6 randomized controlled clinical trials reviewd 2 on postoperative nausea and vomiting suggested that ginger was superior to placebo & equal to metoclopramide. One study each for seasickness, morning sickness and chemotherapy-induced nausea all favoured ginger over placebo. Ernst 2000

Review of literature indicates that pregnancy associated nausea and vomiting may be helped by ginger but more study needed Aikins 1998

Post-surgical nausea and vomiting were as effectively treated by 2 gm ginger as 1.25 mg of droperidol in a trial with 120 patients randomly divided Visalyaputra 1998

4 g daily of ginger powder for 3 months did not affect platelet aggregation induced by ADP and epinephrine but a single 10 gm dose did Bordia 1997

Serum thromboxane B2 was unchanged after eating 15 gm raw ginger root or 40 gm cooked stem, for two weeks in a randomized placebo-controlled cross-over study of 18 healthy young adults Janssen 1996

Time of oral exposure to zingerone, an irritant present in ginger is a greater determinant than concentration on whether sensitization or de-sensitization results. Optimal hiatus for desensitization was 5 min Prescott 1996

Ginger is one of the aromas tested for the relationship between perception and depression in 119 elderly people Satoh 1996

Gynaecological surgery related nausea was increased by 0.5 or 1 gm of ginger in a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial of 108 patients Arfeen 1995

Bleeding time, platelet count, thromboelastography and whole blood platelet aggregometry unaffected by 2 gm dried ginger in a randomised double blind study of 8 men Lumb 1994

Gastric emptying was unaffected by 1 gm ginger in a double-blind crossover trial with 16 healthy volunteers Phillips 1993

Nausea/vomiting was reduced by ginger (21%) more than by metoclopramide (27%) or placebo (41%) in a randomised, double-blind study of 120 gynaecological surgery patients Phillips 1993

Platelet aggregation, induced by epinephrine & ADP, was inhibited by adding 5 gm. of dry ginger to fatty meals in a study of 20 healthy men for 7 days. Serum lipids were unchanged. Verma 1993

Hyper-emesis gravidarum relief provided with 250 mg ginger q.i.d. in a double-blind randomized cross-over trial with 30 patients Fischer-Rasmussen 1991

Powder ginger (whole root, 500 or 1,000 mg) or fresh ginger root (1,000 mg) provided no protection against motion sickness induced by spinning 28 healthy volunteers whereas scopolamine did help Stewart 1991

Post-surgical nausea was reduced by ginger or metoclopramide in a study of 60 women in a double-blind, randomised study Bone 1990

Breech position of pregnancy (28-38th week) was corrected with fresh topical ginger paste nightly for 77% of 113 treated women vs. 52% of 238 untreated women Cai 1990

Neither the vestibular nor the oculomotor system, both of which are important in motion sickness, were influenced by ginger in a controlled, double-blind study. Therefore, benefit is likely mediated by the gastric system Holtmann 1989

Platelet thromboxane decreased from 782 to 498 by 5 gm raw ginger daily for 7 days and raised from 910 to 1005 by 70 gm raw onion in female volunteers Srivastava 1989

Seasickness vomiting and cold sweating were reduced by ginger in a double blind randomized placebo trial with 80 naval cadets Grontved 1988

Vertigo was reduced by ginger in a double-blind crossover placebo study of 8 healthy volunteers Grontved 1986

Observational Studies/Case Reports

3 months use of Hochu-ekki-to, one of Kampo formulas containing 7 drugs including Astragalus root and fresh ginger decreased the increased numbers of eosinophils and serum IgE levels in patients with atopic dermatitis resistant to conventional treatment. Kobayashi 2004

Ginger-associated over anticoagulation was first time reported in a 76 year woman on long-term phenprocoumon therapy with an international normalized ratio (INR) within therapeutic range, and developed an elevated INR up to 10 and epistaxis after using ginger products. Kruth 2004

Drug-induced hypertension. Handler 2003

A highly purified and standardized ginger extract reduced symptoms of osteoarthritis (OA) of the knee in 247 evaluable patients with OA of the knee. Altman 2001

Analysis of a total of 488 surveys (47.4% response rate) on management of nausea & vomiting in pregnancy by obstetrician/gynecologists, showed that treatments recommended by them includes eating frequent small meals (95.5%), taking ginger (51.8%), eliminating iron supplements (50%), etc. Power 2001

Of the 150 surveys completed, 20 women (13%) used dietary supplements during pregnancy and the most common products were echinacea (4/45, 8.9%), pregnancy tea (4/45, 8.9%), and ginger (3/45, 6.7%) to relieve gastrointestinal symptoms. Tsui 2001

Case problem: presenting conventional and complementary approaches for relieving nausea in a breast cancer patient undergoing chemotherapy. [No authors listed] 2000

Reduction of nausea in cancer patients undergoing 8-MOP chemotherapy Meyer 1995

Ginger moxibustion for impotence (no abstract, Chinese) Liang 1992

Nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy are effectively treated with Vitamin B6 and ginger Niebyl 1992

"Pharmacological study of Zingiber officinale (Willd.) Rosc. and its clinical use" (no abstract, review, Chinese) Peng 1992

Pregnancy associated nausea treated with antihistamines, antiemetics, ginger, change of environment, hypnotherapy and psychotherapy; review Schouenborg 1992

Arthritis patients report pain relief with powdered ginger. Mechanism suggested to be by inhibiting prostaglandin and leukotriene biosynthesis Srivastava 1992

A thromboxane synthetase inhibitor such as ginger, which activates endorphin receptors, may be an effective substitute for clonidine for dysmenorrhea Backon 1991

Kawasaki disease immune hypersensitivity damage to circulation might benefit from thromboxane synthetase inhibitors such as ginger and carbon dioxide Backon 1991

Traditional and Folk Use

Ginger has been widely used in Chinese, Ayurvedic and Tibb-Unani herbal medicines for arthritis, rheumatism, sprains, muscular aches, pains, sore throats, cramps, constipation, indigestion, vomiting, hypertension, dementia, fever, infectious diseases and helminthiasis. Ali 2008

68 traditional medicinal plants of clod desert Ladakh species were used in combination with some exotic species such as Terminalia belerica, Terminalia chebula, Zingiber officinale and some medicinal stones, minerals and salts etc. for treatment of kidney and urinary disorders. Ballabh 2008

Several supplements are promoted for treating osteoarthritis, such as methyl sulfonyl methane, Harpagophytum procumbens, Curcuma longa, and Zingiber officinale, but there is insufficient reliable evidence regarding long-term safety or effectiveness. Gregory 2008

The relationship between taste and medicinal perceptions of five herbal drugs, including cinnamon, mint, garlic, ginger (the rhizome of Zingiber officinale), and cloves was studied. Pieroni 2007

Ginger has been shown to be effective for pregnancy-induced and postoperative nausea and vomiting. White 2007

Ginger is effective against motion sickness which is cured by some vanilloids and by anticholinergics such as scopolamine. Abdel-Aziz 2006

The evaluation of recommendations made by health food store employees in the Phoenix metropolitan area regarding treatment of nausea/vomiting during pregnancy showed that the use of ginger was the most recommended therapy for nausea/vomiting. Buckner 2005

Fifty-eight out of 191 asthmatic patients attending a public specialty care Chest clinic in Trinidad (30.4%) reported using herbal remedies including ginger, garlic, aloes, shandileer, wild onion, pepper and black sage for symptomatic relief. Clement 2005

The review of established and experimental therapies that seek to modify and/or even reverse the course of osteoarthritis include such medications as colchicine, bisphosphonates and hormones; dietary therapeutics, such as ginger extract and green tea. Fajardo 2005

Review on plant foods in the management of diabetes mellitus shows that in a limited number of studies, cumin seeds, ginger, mustard, curry leaves and coriander have been reported to be hypoglycaemic. Srinivasan 2005

Gingerols and related compounds in ginger, a traditional medicine used in China have many pharmacological activities. [Article in Chinese] Wang 2005

A review of 7 Chinese herbs including Ginger with emphasis on their immunomodulatory and antimicrobial activities revealed that successful derivation of pure bioactive compounds from them supports traditional use of these plants to stimulate the immune system. Tan 2004

In a qualitative study of self-care in pregnancy, birth and lactation within a non-random sample of 27 women in Canada, 20 women (74%) experienced pregnancy-induced nausea and among them 10 women used anti-emetic herbal remedies, like ginger, peppermint, and Cannabis. Westfall 2004

Zingiber officinale (ginger). Monograph. [No authors listed] 2003

[Ginger as an antiemetic during pregnancy.] Blumenthal 2003

[Chemoprevention: eat ginger, rub on pomegranate.] Burton 2003

Commonly used herbs. Cuddy 2003

[Nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy.] Jewell 2003

In the review of the use of alternative medicine in the treatment of hepatitis C, it has been shown that some patients with hepatitis C take St. John's Wort and ginger to treat the side effects caused by interferon therapy. Bean 2002

Ginger is used in many cultures to treat the symptoms of nausea and vomiting, but no trials have been established on its safety for use during pregnancy. But its efficacy has been documented in 2 randomized, blinded controlled trials. Chandra 2002

The study of herbal supplements, indications, clinical concerns, and safety indicated that most herbal home remedies used for children, include teas made from chamomile, fennel, ginger, or mints. Fugh-Berman 2002

[Nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy.] Jewell 2002

Among 211 women who were interviewed to assess vitamin, mineral and herbal use pre-conceptually and in the three trimesters of pregnancy, ginger (20%) and raspberry leaf (9%) were the most frequently used herbal preparations. Maats 2002

In an overview of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (NVP) with an emphasis on vitamins and ginger it has been shown that ginger reduce NVP. Niebyl 2002

[Is there a role for ginger in the treatment of osteoarthritis?] Marcus 2001

[Balneological use of bath concentrate containing xidifon and essential oils from ginger, nutmeg, and sandal].[Article in Russian] Grigor'eva 2001

[Is ginger root effective for decreasing the severity of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy?] Jackson 2001

The survey of fura production, which is a staple food for the Fulanis and Hausas reveals that spices are indispensable as an ingredient in fura production with ginger being the single most important spice. Jideani 2001

In the review of Alternative medicine in the US and Canada it has been shown that garlic and ginger, through both experimental and clinical data, as well as their liberal consumption by man over millennia, appear to be very safe for therapeutic use. Kaul 2001

[Alternative therapies of morning sickness.] Strong 2001

[Ginger.] Grant 2000

[Selections from current literature. Complementary therapies for nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy.] Meltzer 2000

[Ginger for nausea.] [No authors listed]1999

This review on the health protective effects of phytochemicals indicated that the foods and herbs with the highest anticancer activity include garlic, soybeans, cabbage, ginger, licorice root, and the umbelliferous vegetables. Craig 1999

Amoeba (Entamoeba histolytica) treatment with traditional Indian mixture, 500 mg/kg/day, Boerhavia diffusa, Berberis aristata, Tinospora cordifolia, Terminalia chebula and Zingiber officinale, about as effective as 100 mg/kg/d metronidazole Sohni 1995

Ginger (27%) and honey (25%) are the most common home remedies for cough relief chosen by 200 mothers of sick young children Mishra 1994

Nitrosamine induced depletion of antioxidants (glutathione, vitamins A, C and E) prevented by Amrita Bindu (which includes pepper, ginger, etc) Shanmugasundaram 1994

Blood coagulation effect by ginger depends on preparation Wu 1993

'Trikatu' an Ayurvedic preparation containing black pepper, long pepper & ginger, is part of many treatments and has many activities; a review Johri 1992

Anisakis larvae (ascaridoid nematode in fish that can sicken human) are destroyed by ginger, which is traditionally eaten with raw fish. Minimal effective dose (micrograms/ml) is 62.5 for [6]-shogaol and 250 for [6]-gingerol Goto 1990

Survey of 143 rural mothers in India finds 'hot' foods like tea, ginger with honey, were preferred and 'cold' foods like curd, butter milk were restricted during an episode of cough Kapil 1990

Ayurvedic use for neurological disorders suggests ginger might be useful for migraine headache Mustafa 1990

Upper digestive tract hemorrhage cured in 7 people by Wen-She decoction which contains: Codonopsis pilosulae, Atractylodes macrocephala, Poria cocos, Glycyrrhiza uralensis, Zingiber officinale, Os sepiae Halloysitum rubrum and Astragalus membranaceus Gong 1989

Ginger, reported in Ayurvedic and Tibb systems for rheumatic disorders, helped 7 patients Srivastava 1989

"Changes in multihormones in treating male sterility with acupuncture and indirect moxibustion using ginger slices on the skin" (no abstract, Chinese) Xiong 1986

See entry at the UCLA Online Archive of American Folk Medicine

Monograph on Henriette's Herbals website Remington 1918



SAFETY DATA

Adverse Effects & Toxicity

Using an interlaboratory study a method was developed for determination of aflatoxin B1 in medical herbs of senna pods, devil's claw, and ginger roots. The method was found to be fit for the determination of aflatoxin B1 in medical herbs at levels of 1 microg/kg and above. Arranz 2006

One severe adverse event reported in a study of 15 reports with 777 patients indicated that an abortion occurred in the 12th week of gestation and a total of 136 patients were treated with ginger within the first trimenon of pregnancy without complications. [Article in German] Betz 2005

Chronic administration of 25 mL Catuama, a mixture of 4 drugs including Zingiber officinale, twice a day during 28 days on healthy human volunteers of both sexes, did not produce any severe adverse reactions or haematological and biochemical changes. Oliveira 2005

Molluscicidal activity of Lawsonia inermis and its binary and tertiary combinations with other plant derived molluscicides like the oleoresin extracted from rhizome of ginger was studied against Lymnaea acuminata and Indoplanorbis exustus. Singh 2001

Oral administration of EV.EXT 33, a patented Zingiber officinale extract, to 22 Wistar SPF pregnant female rats, during the period of organogenesis, do not affect reproductive performance, showed no embryotoxic or teratogenic effects at daily doses of up to 1000 mg/kg body weight. Weidner 2001

Among 55 contact dermatitis patients sensitivity was most seen to ginger (7), nutmeg (5), oregano (4) Futrell 1993

Of 55 dermatitis patients 7 had positive patch test reaction to ginger Futrell 1993

Mutagenic assay (Salmonella reverse mutation) was negative for ginger Sivaswamy 1991

Allergy to ginger is uncommon among patients allergic to birch and/or mugwort pollens and celery Stager 1991

6 gm ginger or 3/4 gm garlic increases DNA content of human gastric aspirates, indicating increased exfoliation of gastric surface epithelial cells Desai 1990

LD50 of roasted ginger decoction administered orally is 170.6 +/- 1.1 g/kg, but it is over 250 g/kg with dry ginger. Gastric ulcers in rats are inhibited by roasted but not dry ginger Wu 1990

Sperm motility and levels increased in animals treated 3 months with ginger, rape or Prunus amygdalus. Body weight increased with rape & Prunus but not ginger. No toxic signs observed Qureshi 1989

Specific IgE antibodies against coriander, curry, mace, ginger, and paprika found in spice handler who had asthma van Toorenenbergen 1985

Urinary bladder tumors were increased in female ACI rats fed Zingiber mioga for a year whereas no effect for males nor in female Fischer rats Hirono 1982

Interactions

The review and characterization of the evidence describing potential interactions between warfarin and garlic, ginger, ginkgo, or ginseng reveals that evidence is lacking for an interaction of warfarin with garlic or ginger. Vaes 2000

Maximum intensity of zingerone pungency (mouth rinse of 1% at 6-s intervals for 3 min) was reached within the first 20 seconds. Subsequent decline of rated intensity was faster for frequent eaters of hot chili Prescott 1996

Ginger did not affect protein digestibility of sorghum Pradeep 1991

*Contraindications*
No Records



EVIDENCE OF ACTIVITY

Animal Studies

It has been found that [6]-gingerol, suppressed eosinophilia in a mouse model of airway inflammation, can suppress Th2-mediated immune responses and might provide a therapeutic application in allergic asthma. Ahui 2008

The effect of aq. ethanol extract of Zingiber officinale was evaluated against doxorubicin-induced acute renal damage in rats which revealed that nephroprotection is mediated by preventing the DXN-induced decline of renal antioxidant status, and by increasing the activity of GST. Ajith 2008

A total of 18 plant species representing 14 families including Zingiber officinale were documented in ethnoveterinary medicinal practices to treat the parasitic diseases in livestock. Farooq 2008

Ginger extract reduces the elevated expression of NFkappaB and TNF-alpha in ethionine-induced hepatoma rats with liver cancer and acts as an anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory agent. Habib 2008

An effective extract of Zingiber officinale (L.) Rose was identified to prevent UVB-induced wrinkle formation in animal models without reducing the elastic properties of the skin, accompanied by minor damage in elastic fibers. Imokawa 2008

Ginger and garlic are insulinotropic rather than hypoglycemic while overall anti-diabetic effects of ginger are better than those of garlic, at least in the experimental condition. Islam 2008

The effects of systemic administrations of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae) or its pungent constituent, [6]-gingerol, on resting body temperature was investigated in rats and showed that these agents induced hypothermia in rats via an inhibitory effect on metabolic rate. Ueki 2008

The nephroprotective effects of ethanol extract of Zingiber officinale alone and in combination with vitamin E were evaluated using cisplatin induced acute renal damage in mice which showed that combination of Z. officinale (250 mg/kg) with vitamin E (250 mg/kg) showed a better protection. Ajith 2007

The hepatoprotective effect of aqueous ethanol extract of Zingiber officinale against acetaminophen-induced acute toxicity in rat is mediated either by preventing the decline of hepatic antioxidant status or due to its direct radical scavenging capacity. Ajith 2007

The results of in vitro and in vivo studies indicate that several botanicals such as Gingko biloba, Mentha piperita, Syzygium cumini, Zingiber officinale, Aegle marmelos & Aphanamixis polystachya protect against radiation-induced lethality, lipid peroxidation & DNA damage. Jagetia 2007

The hepatoprotective effects of garlic, ginger (Zingiber officinale) and vitamin E pre-treatment against carbon tetrachloride induced liver damage in male wistar albino rats were evaluated and confirmed. Patrick-Iwuanyanwu 2007

[6]-gingerol shows its protective effects in both in vivo and in vitro prostate cancer models by modulation of testosterone mediated alterations in proteins involved in apoptosis pathway of androgen sensitive LNCaP cells and in vivo, ventral prostate of Swiss albino mice. Shukla 2007

Raw ginger possesses hypoglycaemic, hypocholesterolaemic and hypolipidaemic potential and it is effective in reversing the diabetic proteinuria observed in the diabetic rats. Al-Amin 2006

Hibiscus sabdariffa and Zingiber officinale treatment increased the activities of testicular antioxidant enzymes and restored sperm motility of cisplatin-treated rats. Amin 2006

The ethanolic Zingiber officinale extract pretreatment enhances the antioxidant defense against isoproterenol -induced oxidative myocardial injury in rats and exhibit cardioprotective property. Ansari 2006

It is suggested that ginger extract does not inhibit the development of N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxibutyl) nitrosamine-induced mouse bladder tumors in male Swiss mice. Bidinotto 2006

Chemopreventive activity of ginger on colon carcinogenesis induced by 1,2-dimethylhydrazine in rats as analyzed by the aberrant crypt foci bioassay and by growth kinetics of the colonic mucosa did not confirm its effect. Dias 2006

Treatment with 250 mg/kg of methanol and ethyl acetate extracts of Zingiber officinale for 8 weeks produces significant reduction in body weight, glucose, insulin and lipid levels as compared to obese control mice. Goyal 2006

Zingiber officinale possesses antioxidant, radioprotective and neuromodulatory properties that can be effectively utilized for behavioral radioprotection and for efficiently mitigating radiation-induced conditioned taste aversion in both males and females species in rats. Haksar 2006

It is shown that ginger possesses in vivo anthelmintic activity in sheep thus justifying the age-old traditional use of this plant in helminth infestation. Iqbal 2006

Administration of shogaol purified from Zingiber officinale, prevents secondary pathological events in traumatic Spinal cord injury (SCI) & promotes recovery of motor functions in an animal model and raises the issue of whether shogaol could be used therapeutically in humans after SCI. Kyung 2006

Amrita Bindu, a salt-spice-herbal mixture which includes Zingiber officinale exerts a promising antioxidant potential against free radical induced oxidative damage in rat model. Natarajan 2006

Zingiber officinale rhizomes ethanol extract possesses analgesic, antiinflammatory and hypoglycaemic properties in mice and rats. Ojewole 2006

Topical application of Zingiber officinale extract to rat or hairless mouse skin significantly inhibited the wrinkle formation induced by chronic UV-B irradiation at a suberythemal dose, accompanied by significant prevention of decrease in skin elasticity in both types of animal skin. Tsukahara 2006

A study was carried out to evaluate the antiinflammatory and analgesic effects of Ginger essential oils (GEO) given orally in rodents. GEO was found to contain mono & sesqui-terpenes as principal compounds, which correlated to the antiinflammatory and analgesic effects. Vendruscolo 2006

The effective Parts of Zingiber Officinale has the effect of protection of the vascular endothelium of hyperlipidemic rats, which has nothing with the level of serum IL-6 and TNF-alpha. [Article in Chinese] Wu 2006

The protective effect of the extract from the rhizome of Zingiber officinale on CCl(4) and acetaminophen-induced damage was confirmed by biochemical parameters like ALT, AST, ALP, LDH and SDH in the blood serum & histopathological examination of the liver in rats. Yemitan 2006

The volatile oil of ginger influenced both cell-mediated immune response and nonspecific proliferation of T lymphocytes in vitro and in vivo in mice, and may exert beneficial effects in other clinical conditions, such as chronic inflammation and autoimmune diseases. Zhou 2006

Treatment of ethanolic extract of Zingiber officinale (200 mg/kg) lowered serum total cholesterol, triglycerides and increased the HDL-cholesterol levels and lowered liver and pancreas thiobarbituric acid reactive substances when compared with pathogenic diabetic rats. Bhandari 2005

The crude extract of ginger induced a dose-dependent (0.3-3 mg/kg) fall in the arterial blood pressure of anesthetized rats; in guinea pig paired atria, it exhibited a cardiodepressant activity on the rate and force of spontaneous contractions. Ghayur 2005

Crude extract of ginger induced a dose-dependent fall in arterial blood pressure of anesthetized rats and cardiodepressant activity in guinea pig paired atria. Blood pressure-lowering effect of ginger is mediated through blockade of voltage-dependent calcium channels. Ghayur 2005

HK-07 is a formulation containing the extracts of several herbs including Zingiber officinale. Treatment with HK-07 reduced severity of symptoms & mortality rate following anaphylactic shock & also reduced the serum IgE & the number of disrupted mast cells in animal models. Gopumadhavan 2005

Body weights at 2-8 weeks and final parametrial adipose tissue weights were lowered in mice fed the high-fat diet containing 3% aqueous extract of Zingiber officinale Roscoe than in the controls fed the high-fat diet alone. [Article in Japanese] Han 2005

Digitrall is a polyherbal formulation containing aqueous extracts of Zingiber officinale, Amomum sabulatum, Berberis aristata, Piper nigram, Ptychotis ajowan, Carica Papay and Foenieulum vulgar that shows preventive action on indomethacin-induced ulcer in rats. Jana 2005

The methanolic extract of Zingiber officinale produces better effects than ethyl acetate extract in fructose induced hyperlipidemia associated with insulin resistance in rats. The extent of activity appears to be dependent on the concentration of 6-gingerol present in the extracts. Kadnur 2005

Intraperitoneal administration of [6]-gingerol (25 mg/kg-50 mg/kg) produced an inhibition of acetic acid-induced writhing response & formalin-induced licking time in the late phase & at (50 mg/kg-100 mg/kg) it produced an inhibition of paw edema induced by carrageenin. Young 2005

Pretreatment of mice with extract of ginger rhizome (ZOE) reduced the severity of symptoms of radiation sickness & mortality at all the exposure doses and the ZOE treatment protected mice against gastrointestinal-related deaths as well as bone-marrow-related deaths. Jagetia 2004

Assessment of the therapeutic effects of Kampo formulas, in 95 patients with recalcitrant atopic dermatitis revealed that the most commonly used formula was Hochu-ekki-to containing 7 drugs including Astragalus root, liquorice, jujube, ginseng, fresh ginger & Chinese Angelica root. Kobayashi 2004

The anti-inflammatory activity of Aller-7, a formulation containing 7 medicinal plants including Zingiber officinale, was determined in compound 48/80-induced paw edema in Balb/c mice & Swiss Albino mice, carrageenan-induced paw edema and Freund's adjuvant-induced arthritis in Wistar Albino rats. Pratibha 2004

It was found that 'Trikatu' (a herbal combination containing Piper longum, P.nigrum & Zingiber officinale dry powder) by virtue of its ability to reduce triglycerides & LDL cholesterol and to increase HDL cholesterol can reduce the risk of hyperlipidaemia & atherosclerosis in Rattus norvegicus. Sivakumar 2004

Cholesterol feeding (0.3g/kg body weight) for 75 days lead to development of atheroma in the aorta & coronary arteries of the rabbits and this was inhibited by about 50%, following the administration of air dried ginger powder (0.1g/kg body weight). Verma 2004

Pretreatment with zerumbone, a sesquiterpene obtained from Zingiber zerumbet Smith lowered levels of inflammatory biomarkers like interleukin -1beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and prostaglandin2 in female ICR mice which were induced acute colitis by 5% dextran sodium sulfate. Murakami 2003

Treatment with Zingiber officinale increased insulin levels and decreased fasting glucose levels in streptozotocin -induced type I diabetic rats. It also decreased serum cholesterol,serum triglyceride and blood pressure in diabetic rats. Akhani 2003

Pretreatment with hydroalcoholic extract of ginger rhizome in mice after whole-body exposure to gamma radiation, reduced the severity of radiation sickness, mortality & protected mice from GI syndrome & bone marrow syndrome. Elevation in lipid peroxidation & depletion of glutathione were lessened. Jagetia 2003

In the evaluation of comparative hypoglycaemic activity of 30 medicinal plants selected from folk medicines, Ayurvedic, Unani & Siddha systems of medicines, 24 samples including Zingiber officinale, (250 mg/kg) lowered blood glucose within 2 weeks in alloxan diabetic albino rats. Kar 2003

Male adult Wistar rats fed with diet containing 2% and 5% ginger, increased glutathione peroxidase and reduced lipid peroxides in hyperlipidemia rats' blood and such antioxidative effect may play role in attenuation of development of atherosclerosis. [Article in Chinese] Liu 2003

Pre-treatment of mice for seven days with ginger extracts orally before exposure to sodium arsenite (2.5 mg/kg body wt. p.o.) resulted in a reduction of the magnitude of formation of micronuclei in polychromatic erythrocytes of the bone marrow. Odunola 2003

Crude extract of Zingiber officinale 0.6 mg & 1.8 mg/site and 186 mg/kg(-1) body wt. i.p. reduced rat skin edema induced by compound 48/80, serotonin and by carrageenan respectively. Administration of alcoholic ginger extract i.p. also inhibited rat paw edema induced by the above compounds. Penna 2003

In the investigation of gastric emptying effect of the aqueous extract of xiao-ban-xia-tang in mice it was indicated that the aqueous extract of Pinellia ternata, but not that of Zingiber officinale showed an inhibitory activity on gastric emptying. Chen 2002

The aqueous extract of Zingiber officinale at a dose of 600 mg kg(-1) day(-1) for 8 days increased the relative weight of the testis, the serum testosterone level, testicular cholesterol level and epididymal a-glucosidase activity. Kamtchouing 2002

The chronic treatment of hot water extract of Bitter Melon (0.5%) or Ginger (0.125%) in drinking water, to the SHN virgin mice, the development of spontaneous mammary tumors was inhibited and there were no adverse effects with these agents. Nagasawa 2002

Administration of an aqueous extract of ginger, orally or intraperitoneally, daily for a period of 4 weeks to rats, showed that ginger could be used as a cholesterol-lowering, antithrombotic and anti-inflammatory agent. Thomson 2002

Chronic treatment of 1 mg/kg Zingicomb, a mixture of zingiber officinale and ginkgo biloba extracts in aged rats, improved escape learning in the water maze and the amount of oxidized proteins & lipid peroxidation were reduced. Topic 2002

The enhanced conditioned inhibitory avoidance by Zingicomb, a combined extract of Zingiber officinale and Ginkgo biloba investigated in adult male Wistar rats, showed potent anxiolytic effect and can facilitate performance on a learning task. Topic 2002a

The structure-activity relationship of diarylheptanoids and their analogues inhibitory of emesis induced by copper sulfate in young chicks was investigated by testing 19 compounds including 6 analogues isolated from Zingiber officinale rhizome. Yang 2002

One-hour pretreatment with ginger acetone extracts(100,250 and 500 mg/kg p.o.) in Wistar rats of either sex, weighing between 200-250 g, reversed the pyrogallol-induced delay in gastric emptying. The effect was significant at doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg. Gupta 2001

The hyperphagic effect of p-chlorophenylalanine, 8-hydroxy-2-(di-N-propylamino)-tetralin, cyproheptadine& 2-deoxy-D-glucose was antagonized by both OB-200G, a polyherbal preparation containing 5 aqueous extracts including Zingiber officinale in female mice. Kaur 2001

Ginger; 1% w/w lowered lipid peroxidation by maintaining the activities of the antioxidant enzymes--superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase in rats but it increased the blood glutathione content in rats. Ahmed 2000

Administration of malathion (20 ppm) for 4 weeks induced oxidative stress and concomitant dietary feeding of Zingiber officinales Rosc (ginger 1%, w/w) was found to attenuate malathion induced lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress in albino rats. Ahmed 2000a

Consumption of 250 microg of standardized ginger extract/day resulted in reductions in plasma triglycerides and cholesterol (by 27 & 29%), reduced the basal level of LDL-associated lipid peroxides by 62% and attenuated development of atherosclerotic lesions in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Fuhrman 2000

The total 90% ethanol extract of Banxia Houpu Decoction, which consists of 5 drugs including Zingiber officinale was shown to possess an antidepressant activity, evaluated by tail suspension and forced swimming tests in mice, and the effect was close to that of Prozac, a clinically applied agent. Luo 2000

Repeated administration of Shitei-To, a Chinese herbal Medicine containing 3 extracts including, Zingiber officinale mildly retards development of pentylenetetrazol-induced kindling in mice & decreased number of tonic-clonic convulsions resulting from progression kindling. Minami 2000

Administration of crude aqueous extracts of ginger and ginger oil by i.p. injection to male mice revealed that ginger oil showed a higher frequency of chromosomal aberrations suggesting that the extract contain substance(s) that suppress clastogenesis in the bone marrow cells of mice. Mukhopadhyay 2000

Plant materials of Euryale ferox, Phoenix dactylifera and Zingiber officinale which are given to mothers after child birth or to invalids, stimulated humoral immunity to a greater extent than cell-mediated immunity in BALB/c mice. Puri 2000

The patented standardised ginger extract, EV.EXT33, neither decreases systolic blood pressure nor increases heart rate in the rat, did not interact with Warfarin and had no effects on blood glucose levels at the doses used hence considered pharmacologically safe. Weidner 2000

Administration of 20 or 50 g/liter ginger tea via the drinking water in pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats resulted in increased early embryo loss with increased growth in surviving fetuses. Wilkinson 2000

Trikatu consists of three crude drugs namely dried fruits of black pepper long pepper and dried rhizomes of ginger (Zingiber Officinalis Rosc.) Trikatu was shown to enhance the absorption of indomethacin by inhibiting the metabolizing enzymes in rabbits. Karan 1999

Topical application of [6]-gingerol or [6]-paradol 30 min prior to 12-O-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate attenuated the skin papillomagenesis initiated by 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene in female ICR mice and inhibited the tumor-promoter-stimulated inflammation, & TNF-alpha production. Surh 1999

Cholesterol and atherosclerosis were reduced when an ethanolic extract of ginger (200 mg/kg, p.o.) was added to a high cholesterol diet fed to rabbits Bhandari 1998

[6]-gingerol inhibited phorbol/DMBA induced skin cancer and suppressed phorbol (TPA) induced epidermal ornithine decarboxylase activity and inflammation Park 1998

Gastric emptying problem caused by cisplatin cancer therapy is reversed by ginger juice (@ 2 - 4 ml/kg) better than ondansetron in dogs. Acetone or 50% ethanolic extract @ 100, 200 or 500 mg/kg (p.o.) are less effective Sharma 1998

Ginger produces detoxification effect in vivo to toxin of Pinellia Rhizoma(PR) by inhibiting increase of capillary permeability in abdominal cavity & also by reducing PGE2 content of inflammatory foot tissue of mice induced by administration of raw PR. [Article in Chinese] Wu 1998

Combination of garlic and ginger is more effective at improving blood glucose and serum lipids than either alone or placebo in rats Ahmed 1997

Zingicomb (ginger:ginkgo ratio of 2.5:1) increased maze exploration by rats Hasenohrl 1996

Dose dependent inhibition of phorbol TPA induced ornithine decarboxylase, cyclooxygenase, and lipoxygenase, markers of skin tumor promotion. Ginger protects against TPA/DMBA induced epidermal edema and hyperplasia in mice Katiyar 1996

Dietary curcumin, capsaicin, piperine and ginger (50 mg%) enhanced intestinal lipase activity and the disaccharidases sucrase and maltase. Dietary cumin, fenugreek, mustard and asafoetida decreased phosphatases and sucrase Platel 1996

LiCl reaction in rats (an indicator of antiemetic properties) is reduced by 50 - 100 mg/kg zingicomb (ginger & ginkgo) Frisch 1995

Gingerol from ginger had activity similar to other capsaicin like stinulators of oxygen uptake Eldershaw 1994

Joint sweling induced by Mycobacterium was reduced by pretreatment with eugenol and ginger oil orally for 26 days Sharma 1994

Gingerols are more potent than shogaols at inducing oxygen consumption in muscles. Potency is correlated with vasoconstriction; inversely correlated with alkyl chain length; unrelated to catecholamine or adrenergic receptors Eldershaw 1992

Immunoreactive substance P (ISP) was increased by (6)-Shogaol, 30-1000 microM dose dependently and depends on calcium ions. Capsaicin induced release of ISP is inhibited by shogaol Onogi 1992

Ginger juice increased amplitude and decreased frequency of fundus strip contractions and increased ileum contraction. Ginger shows non-competitive antagonism with acetylcholine and histamine indicating involvement of substance P Qian 1992

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) oxidation by liver microsomes inhibited by zingerone from ginger at high concentrations (over 150 microM), curcumin (5-50 microM), turmeric & eugenol (25-150 microM), cloves and capsaicin (25-150 microM) Reddy 1992

6-gingesulfonic acid from ginger root has more anti-ulcer activity than 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol in rats Yoshikawa 1992

5 times the normal human intake of ginger, cinnamon, cumin, mustard and tamarind did not lower cholesterol in rats Sambaiah 1991

Liver cholesterol-7 alpha-hydroxylase, the rate-limiting enzyme of bile acid biosynthesis, was increased by curcumin (turmeric), capsaicin (red pepper), ginger and mustard and unaffected by black pepper or cumin Srinivasan 1991

Serotonin (5-HT) induced hypothermia & diarrhea is inhibited by ginger extract. This is attributed to [6]-shogaol, which was more potent than [6]-dehydrogingerdione, [8]- and [10]-gingerol Huang 1990

Gastric ulcers in rats are inhibited by roasted but not dry ginger Wu 1990

Gastrointestinal time of meal transport reduced by ginger acetone extract at 75 mg/kg, [6]-shogaol at 2.5 mg/kg, or a [6]-, [8]- or [10]-gingerol at 5 mg/kg. Effect is similar to that of metoclopramide and donperidone Yamahara 1990

Gastric lesions induced in rats by alcohol, alkali, salt, NSAIDs or restraint are alleviated by ginger extract al-Yahya 1989

Gingerols relaxed muscle and modulate the response to eicosanoids: increasing effect by PGF2 alpha, PGE2, PGI2-Na, and TRK-100, but suppressed the response to PGD2, U-46619, LTC4, LTD4, NA and PhE Kimura 1989

Blood glucose lowered in rabbits; prostaglandin inhibited in rat leucocytes; gram positive and negative bacteria inhibited; and some inflammation in rats inhibited by ginger Mascolo 1989

Noradrenaline contractile response inhibited by [6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol. PGF2a induced contraction potentiated by [6]-gingerol and inhibited by [6]-shogaol Pancho 1989

Catecholamine (esp. epinephrine) secretion from rat adrenal increased by zingerone, capsaicin & piperine (pepper) Kawada 1988

Gastric lesions induced by ethanol inhibited by acetone extract @ 1000 mg/kg (97%), zingiberene at 100 mg/kg (54%), or 6-Gingerol, the pungent principle, @ 100 mg/kg (55%) Yamahara 1988

Dirofilaria immitis infected dogs injected with ginger extract had microfilarial concentration in blood reduced by a maximum of 98%, which persisted 55 days after treatment at 83% Datta 1987

Blood pressure decrease induced by (6)-shogaol is prevented by atropine and vagotomy Suekawa 1986

6)-Shogaol, a pungent compound in semi-dried ginger but rarely in fresh ginger, inhibited carrageenin-induced swelling, arachidonate induced platelet aggregation and prostaglandin I2 release from rat aorta Suekawa 1986

Bile secretion increase by ginger attributed to [6]-gingerol and [10]-gingerol Yamahara 1985

(6)-gingerol or (6)-shogaol show inhibition of spontaneous motor activity, antipyretic, analgesic & antitussive effects, lower blood pressure and prolonged hexobarbital-induced sleeping time Suekawa 1984

Pharmacodynamics

The effect of Zingiber officinale was evaluated against larval maturation & adult emergence of Anopheles pharoensis & Musca domestica 3rd stage under laboratory conditions showing that Z. officinale not only has a larvicidal action against above larvae but also affected adult fecundity. Abdel Halim 2008

Extracts from plants showing in vivo antitumor activity including rhizomes of Curcuma longa & Ginger were tested in vivo using 3 subsequent bioassays: Brine Shrimp Toxicity bioassay, Agar well diffusion antimicrobial bioassay & Agrobacterium tumefaciens Potato Disc Tumor bioassay. Amara 2008

6-gingerol exhibits antitumor effects by: 1) direct suppression of colon cancer cell growth, and 2) decreasing the blood supply of the tumor by inhibiting angiogenic potential of endothelial cell tubule formation. Brown 2008

Ginger oil is a potent inhibitor of phasic activity in rat uterus, irrespective of how it was produced and the effects are largely due to citral, and could be via inhibition of L-type Ca channels. Buddhakala 2008

[6]-gingerol from ginger induces a significant rise in [Ca2+]i in MDCK renal tubular cells by stimulating both extracellular Ca2+ influx and thapsigargin-sensitive intracellular Ca2+ release via as yet unidentified mechanisms. Chen 2008

A study with Zingiber officinale & Sophora flavescens Aiton extracts on anti-Toxoplasma gondii activity showed significant anti-Toxoplasma gondii RH strain activity by both plant extracts, with Z. officinale extracts showing (EC(50)=0.18mg/mL), with highly selective toxicity (selectivity=10.1). Choi 2008

A unique combination of muscarinic, possible Ca(++) antagonist and BuChE inhibitory activities of dried ginger, indicates its benefit in dementia, including Alzheimer's disease. Ghayur 2008

Ginger inhibits airway contraction and associated Ca(2+) signalling, possibly via blockade of plasma membrane Ca(2+) channels in murine airway smooth muscle cells, thus reiterating the effectiveness of this age-old herb in treating respiratory illnesses. Ghayur 2008

An in vitro study was conducted on Zingiber officinale (ginger) on motility, grading and morphological aspects of human sperm and found that ginger can induce the toxic effects on sperm parameters. Jorsaraei 2008

[6]-gingerol inhibits cell adhesion, invasion, motility and activities of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cell lines. Lee 2008

The inhibitory effects of 6-shogaol & 6-gingerol were investigated on the induction of nitric oxide synthase & COX-2 in murine RAW 264.7 cells activated with LPS which revealed that 6-Shogaol suppressed lipo polysaccharide induced up-expression of iNOS & COX-2 in murine macrophages. Pan 2008

6-Shogaol from Ginger induces apoptosis in human colorectal carcinoma cells via ROS production, caspase activation, & GADD 153 expression. The growth arrest & DNA damage inducible transcription factor 153 mRNA & protein is induced by 6-Shogaol in a time & concentration-dependent manner. Pan 2008

Two highly alkylated gingerols, [10]-& [12]-gingerols inhibited growth of 3 oral pathogens (anaerobic Gram-negative bacteria, Porphyromonas gingivalis ATCC 53978, Porphyromonas endodontalis ATCC 35406 & Prevotella intermedia ATCC 25611), at a minimum inhibitory concentration of 6-30 microg/mL. Park 2008

The antifungal activity of several essential oils including Zingiber officinale, were evaluated against both fluconazole-resistant & susceptible Candida spp which revealed that susceptibility of fluconazole-resistant Candida spp was higher for ginger essential oils than those of susceptible yeasts. Pozzatti 2008

The larvicidal activity of a petroleum ether extract of Zingiber officinale Roscoe containing 4-gingerol, (6)-dehydrogingerdione & (6)-dihydro-gingerdione was evaluated against fourth instar larvae of Aedes aegypti L. and Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera) and confirmed. Rahuman 2008

The antimicrobial properties of the essential oil and oleoresins of Zingiber officinale were studied using various food-borne pathogenic fungal and bacterial species. The essential oil and CCl(4) oleoresin showed 100% zone inhibition against Fusarium moniliforme. Singh 2008

Ginger, in addition to having a direct cholinergic agonistic effect on the post-synaptic M3 receptors, has a possible inhibitory effect on pre-synaptic muscarinic autoreceptors, similar to standard muscarinic antagonists. Ghayur 2007

The role for ginger proteases has been reported as an alternative to papain, in commercial applications such as meat tenderization, where collagen is the target substrate. Kim 2007

[6]-gingerol, a naturally occurring plant phenol and one of the major components of fresh ginger could be an effective therapeutic agent providing protection against UVB-induced skin disorders by preventing UVB-induced ROS production and COX-2 expression in vitro and in vivo. Kim 2007

Curcuma aromatia & Zingiber officinale extracts effectively protected neuronal cells from betaAmyloid(1-42) insult, followed by ginkgo, Polygonatum sp., Cinnamum cassia , Rheum coreanum, Gastrodia elata & Scutellaria baicalensis; potential drug candidates against onset of Alzheimer's disease. Kim 2007

Extracts containing either predominantly gingerols or shogaols (identified by HPLC) were both highly active at inhibiting LPS-induced PGE (2) production (IC(50)<0.1 microg/ml), while extracts that contained unknown compounds were less effective (IC(50)<3.2 microg/ml). Lantz 2007

Essential oil of ginger extracted by hydrodistillation had the highest efficiency against three positive strains of bacteria (S. aureus, B. cereus and L. monocytogenes), with a minimum concentration to inhibit B. cereus and L. monocytogenes of 6.25 mg/mL. Norajit 2007

Ginger inhibits growth and modulates secretion of angiogenic factors in ovarian cancer cells. The use of dietary agents such as ginger may have potential in the treatment and prevention of ovarian cancer. Rhode 2007

The volatile oil from ginger rhizomes (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) and distinct compounds such as terpinolene, beta-pinene and alpha-phellandrene interact with 5-HT3 receptor channel system and possess an antispasmodic effect on the rat ileum. Riyazi 2007

Pectic polysaccharides from 6 dietary sources including Zingiber officinale--ginger and, citrus pectin were examined for galectin inhibitory activity. Sathisha 2007

Exposure of male Mediterranean fruit flies to ginger, Zingiber officinale Roscoe, root oil has been shown to increase mating success in laboratory and field cage trials. Shelly 2007

It is reported that ginger-free phenolic and ginger hydrolysed phenolic fractions of ginger are potent inhibitors of increased gastric cell proton potassium ATPase activity and Helicobacter pylori growth. Siddaraju 2007

Ethanolic and water extracts, together with volatile oils from 6 rhizomes including Zingiber officinale were investigated for their anti-allergic activities using a RBL-2H3 cell line against antigen-induced beta-hexosaminidase release as a marker of degranulation. Tewtrakul 2007

Seven commercial essential oils extracted from the plant species including Zingiber officinale were evaluated for repellent activity against the three cockroach species. Thavara 2007

The ginger extract exerts dose-dependent suppression of cell proliferation in HEp-2 cell line which is due to Induction of apoptosis mediated by reactive oxygen species; the IC (50) value was found to be 900 microg/ml. Vijaya Padma 2007

Examination of inhibitory effect of a stable [6]-gingerol metabolite, RAC-[6]-dihydroparadol and RAC-2-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)dodecan-3-one on NO production, inducible nitric oxide synthase activity and protein expression levels in a murine macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7. Aktan 2006

The synergism between 13 antimicrobial drugs and 8 plant extracts including, ginger (Zingiber officinale), and mint against Staphylococcus aureus strains was verified, and for this purpose, the disk method was the antimicrobial susceptibility test performed. Betoni 2006

The aqueous extract of ginger exhibits species-specific spasmogenicity in gut tissues of rabbit and rat (muscarinic-type) while through an uncharacterized pathway in guinea-pig ileum, along with a dormant relaxant effect, mediated via the blockade of voltage-dependent Ca2 + channels. Ghayur 2006

The inhibitory effect of Zingiber officinale on growth of influenza A/Aichi/2/68 virus was investigated in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells which showed that itself it has no inhibitory effect on the growth of influenza virus, but exerts its effect via macrophage activation & TNF-alpha production. Imanishi 2006

The assay for aldose reductase inhibitors in ginger led to isolation of five active compounds that significantly suppressed not only sorbitol accumulation in human erythrocytes but also lens galactitol accumulation in 30% of galactose-fed cataract rat model. Kato 2006

An extract from ginger (root of Zingiber officinale) reduced minimum inhibitory concentrations of aminoglycosides in vancomycin-resistant enterococci. The effective compound was isolated and identified as [10]-gingerol. Nagoshi 2006

The combinations of propolis extract + clarithromycin and Z. officinale extract + clarithromycin exhibited improved inhibition of H. pylori with synergistic or additive activity. Nostro 2006

The RP-HPLC with fluorescence detection was used to assess the antioxidant capacity of natural essential oils like ginger (Zingiber officinale), and it reduced the oxidation process by up to 92%. Pezo 2006

The results of polyketide synthase assays showed detectable curcuminoid synthase activity in the extracts from turmeric with the highest activity found in extracts from leaves. However, no gingerol synthase activity could be identified. Ramirez-Ahumada 2006

Study on the availability of weight-loss supplements of 402 products indicates that for the 7 ingredients including ginger root, guarana, hydroxycitric acid, white willow, Siberian ginseng, cayenne, and bitter orange/zhi shi only inadequate or negative evidence exists. Sharpe 2006

Hepatitis C virus protease was most efficiently inhibited by the extracts from Zingiber officinale, with little difference between the aqueous and the methanol extracts. Sookkongwaree 2006

13 herbs including Zingiber officinale & Panax ginseng are traditionally used for anticancer treatment and are antiangiogenic through multiple interdependent processes that include effects on gene expression, signal processing, and enzyme activities. Yance 2006

Investigation among 49 methanol extracts of 37 Malaysian medicinal plant species revealed that 10 species including Zingiber officinale Rosc were potential sources of new platelet-activating factor antagonists & they showed inhibitory effects with IC50 values from 1.2 to 18.4 microg ml(-1). Jantan 2005

[6]-gingerol, a pungent ingredient of ginger found to inhibit 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate induced cyclooxygenase-2 expression in mouse skin in vivo by blocking the p38 MAP kinase- nuclear factor-kappaB signaling pathway. Kim 2005

The in vitro susceptibility of 15 Helicobacter pylori strains to botanical extracts, including Zingiber officinale with a history of traditional use in treatment of GI disorders was assessed revealing that Methanol extracts of Z. officinale showed an MIC of 25 microg/mL. Mahady 2005

A ginger extract combination was more effective in decreasing chemokine mRNA and chemokine secreted protein levels than its individual components Zingiber officinale or Alpinia galangal in human synoviocytes. Phan 2005

The results of a preliminary antimicrobial screening of the methanol extracts of Zingiber officinale, Asteracantha longifolia, Citrus acida, Salacia microsperma and Tinospora cordifolia are reported. Samy 2005

The antimicrobial efficacy of ginger, fingerroot, and turmeric was evaluated against five strains of Listeria monocytogenes and four strains of Salmonella enterica ssp. enterica serovar Typhimurium DT104 which showed that essential oils of ginger inhibited all L. monocytogenes. Thongson 2005

Three preparations of ginger-processed Rhizoma pinelliae exhibits anti-emetic effect in minks, which is mediated by inhibiting the function of the vomiting center in central nervous system. [Article in Chinese] Zhao 2005

The pathway that activates the Nuclear transcription factor kappa B can be interrupted by phytochemicals derived from 11 spices including, turmeric (curcumin), and ginger (gingerol). Aggarwal 2004

Ginger(0.01-1000 microg/ml) inhibited both electrical stimulation (EFS)?and acetylcholine-evoked contractions, but comparatively more potent in inhibiting the contractions induced by EFS in the isolated rat ileum. Borrelli 2004

Antioxidant efficacy of Aller-7, a novel polyherbal formulation which contains 7 drugs including Zingiber officinale, was investigated by various assays including hydroxyl radical scavenging assay, superoxide anion scavenging assay, 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl radical scavenging assays. D'Souza 2004

An in vitro human synoviocyte assay system developed for screening inhibitors of proinflammatory mediators in herbal extracts showed that ginger extract blocks activation of proinflammatory mediators & its transcriptional regulator suggesting its mode of action. Frondoza 2004

Ginger extract found to inhibit lipopolysaccharide, cytokine, and amyloid Abeta peptide-induced expression of the proinflammatory genes TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, COX-2, MIP-alpha, MCP-1, and IP-10 in cultured THP-1 monocytes. Grzanna 2004

At 100 microg/ml Zingiber offifinale Rosc. (ZOR) induced macrophage-inducible nitric oxide (NO) synthase mRNA expression in a macrophage cell line, RAW264.7 cells and the beneficial effects of ZOR through the macNOS-mediated activation of the biodefense mechanism. Imanishi 2004

Anti-inflammatory activities of silica gel chromatography fractions of fresh organically grown ginger tested by using an in vitro PGE2 assay revealed that fractions containing gingerols and/or gingerol derivatives inhibited LPS-induced PGE2 production. Jolad 2004

The preliminary antimicrobial screening of the methanol extracts of Aframomum melegueta, Piper guineense, Xylopia aethiopica, Zingiber officinale, medicinal plants of Ghana, were reported. Konning 2004

The evaluation of total antioxidant capacity (TAC) & total polyphenols (TPP) of Fijian fruits & vegetables reveals that Ginger orange-yellow (360 mg/100g TAC, 320 microg/100g TPP) & ginger white (320 mg/100g TAC, 200 mg/100g TPP) contain substantial amounts of TAC & TPP respectively. Lako 2004

The effect of Decoction for resuscitation on the parameters in culture medium of rat vascular endothelial cells under hypoxia was better than that of the extracts from its component herbs including dried ginger extract. [Article in Chinese] Liu 2004

At 10 mg x L(-1), Malytea Scurfpea fruit (MSF), not produced any difference among MSF-treated, Ginger-treated and untreated human epidermal melanocytes when adhesion test were studied. [Article in Chinese] Mou 2004

Antibacterial activity of 5 essential oils extracted from aromatic plants of Cameroon determined by the agar diffusion method showed that Zingiber officinale & Ocimumbasilicum had the lowest activity against strains of Staphylococcus aureus. & Listeria monocytogenes. Nguefack 2004

The agar dilution technique which determine the inhibitory effect of 5 essential oils including Zingiber officinale showed moderate activity on the radial growth of the fungus, and a dose response was recorded. Nguefack 2004

Physiological profiles of Pycnogenol & Standardized Ginger Root Extract representing active constituents of Zinopin have been described and reviewed in relation to their activities involved in the patho-physiology of Venous thrombo-embolism & Motion sickness and their safe use as food supplement. Scurr 2004

Ginger extracts were found to enhance the adipocyte differentiation in cultured mouse 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and in the gingerol-treated cells, insulin-sensitive glucose uptake was increased. Sekiya 2004

It has been shown that adult Mediterranean fruit flies when exposed to Ginger root oil in plastic adult rearing containers had higher mating success and increased the effectiveness of sterile insect release programs. Shelly 2004

Plant-derived molluscicides Annona squamosa and Lawsonia inermis & their combinations with other herbal molluscicides, including Azadirachta indica and oleoresin of Ginger, caused a significant reduction in the fecundity, hatchability, and survival of young snails of Lymnaea acuminata. Singh 2004

Screening of extracts of 26 edible plants from China, Japan, Thailand and Yemen for antibacterial activity showed that Bacillus cereus was most sensitive to extracts from 6 drugs including Azadirachta indica, Cinnamomum cassia and Zingiber officinale, with MIC of 165 to 660 mg l(-1). Alzoreky 2003

Aller-7, a novel, botanical formulation with a combination of seven medicinal plant extracts, including Albizia lebbeck, Piper nigrum, and Zingiber officinale showed inhibitory activity against lipoxygenase and hyaluronidase and had antihistaminic & antispasmodic activities. Amit 2003

Among 14 plant extracts of commonly used spices, most of the extracts including Zingiber officinale (aqueous) exhibited a dose-dependent nitric oxide scavenging activity. Baliga 2003

More stringent evaluation of anti-inflammatory & anti-pyretic activities in rats can help resolve some of the uncertainties surrounding (a) preparations of some herbal products including so-called 'nature's aspirin' (e.g. willowbark, ginger), celery seed, etc., & (b) some animal lipids. Butters 2003

The rainbow trout fish fed with a diet containing 1% aqueous extract of powdered ginger roots for three weeks exhibited a non-specific immune response and showed highest level of plasma proteins but 0.1% ginger did not increase the total protein level in plasma. Dugenci 2003

Among 36 extracts derived from 29 plant species several extracts, notably those from Zingiber officinale and butternut, had antifungal activity against many fungi, including strains that were resistant to amphotericin B and ketoconazole. Ficker 2003

[6]-Gingerol, a pungent phenolic compound present in ginger, inhibited nitric oxide (NO) production dose-dependently and reduced inducible NO synthase in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated J774.1 cells. It is also a protector against peroxynitrite-mediated damage. Ippoushi 2003

The evaluation of the antioxidant, anticancer & antimycobacterial activities of extracts from Zingiber officinale, rosemary, and turmeric showed that ginger and turmeric extracts have selective anticancer activities. Leal 2003

Ginger oil found to have dominantive protective effect on DNA damage induced by H2O2 and it decreased the content of malondialdehyde in rabit hepatocyte with the inhitibition rate of 48.16%. [Article in Chinese] Lu 2003

Methanol extract of ginger rhizome inhibited growth of 19 strains of Helicobacter pylori in vitro with a minimum inhibitory concentration(MIC) range of 6.25-50 micrograms/ml. Gingerols fraction had MIC range of 0.78 to 12.5 micrograms/ml with activity against CagA+ strains. Mahady 2003

Ginger-specific constituents other than curcuminoids were found to be potential anticancer agents and among tested compounds, galanals A and B, isolated from flower buds of a Japanese ginger, showed potent cytotoxic effect and are apoptosis inducers in Human T lymphoma Jurkat cells. Miyoshi 2003

The gingerol compounds and their derivatives including [8]-Paradol, a natural constituent of ginger, was found to be the most potent COX-1 inhibitor and anti platelet aggregation agent with IC(50) values ranging from 3 to 7 microM. Nurtjahja-Tjendraputra 2003

Elevation and ginger root oil exposure had significant effects, with sterile male Mediterranean fruit flies, having higher mating success at low-elevation site and ginger root oil-exposed males having greater success than ginger root oil-deprived males at both sites. Shelly 2003

The inhibitory effects of ginger root extract (GRE) on nitric oxide and prostaglandin E(2) production by sow osteoarthrotic cartilage explants suggest an important role for GRE as an anti-arthritic agent in osteoarthrosis in sow. Shen 2003

6-Gingerol, an antioxidant from ginger was shown to protect HL-60 cells from oxidative stress induced cell death in promyelocytic leukemia HL-60 cells,caused DNA fragmentation and inhibited Bcl-2 expression in HL-60 cells. Wang 2003

Zingiber officinale and Garcinia kola exhibited antibacterial activity against four respiratory tract pathogens and for ginger the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration ranged from 0.0003 to 0.7 microg/ml and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration ranged from 1.35 to 2.04 microg/ml. Akoachere 2002

The trans-6-, 8-, and 10-shogaols isolated from hexane extract of the roots of ginger were three times more active than standard CuSO4 in the blue mussel assay and trans-8-shogaol showed highest antifouling activity comparable with that of tributyltin fluoride in conventional submerged assay. Etoh 2002

6-Shogaol, a constituent of Zingiber officinale, improved carbachol-induced accelerated small intestinal transit in vivo, and improved longitudinal muscle contraction induced by low-frequency electrical stimulation of isolated guinea pig small intestine in vitro. Hashimoto 2002

Four shogaols that protect IMR32 human neuroblastoma and normal human umbilical vein endothelial cells from beta-amyloid(25-35) insult at EC50 = 4.5 - 81 microM were isolated from Zingiber officinale rhizome. Kim 2002

Oral administration of 10g/kg and 40g/kg alcohol extract of Zingben officinale rose, raise the thymus index, spleen index, percentage of phagocytosis, rate of alpha-ANAE+ and titer of IgM of mice with tumor. [Article in Chinese] Liu 2002

Exposure of laboratory-reared sterilized male flies to ginger root oil for several hours 1 day prior to testing in field cages, improved the mating competitiveness of male flies ca. 3-fold, irradiation reduced this increase to ca. 2.5-fold. McInnis 2002

Investigation of bioactivity of an ethyl acetate ginger extract towards Schistosoma mansoni adult pairs, both cultured in vitro and in vivo in laboratory mice, by monitoring worm mortality and fecundity showed that 200 mg l(-1) of extract killed almost all worms within 24 h, in vitro. Sanderson 2002

A wide variety of phenolic substances derived from spices like curcumin, capsaicin,and [6]-gingerol, a pungent ingredient present in ginger possess potent antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic activities, which are often associated with their antioxidative and anti-inflammatory activities. Surh 2002

Animals treated with benzene fraction of a petroleum ether extract of ginger, showed anti-convulsant activity, decreased occupancy in closed arm of elevated plus maze due to anxiolytic agents and blocked lithium sulphate induced conditioned place aversion indicating antiemetic activity. Vishwakarma 2002

Dong quai, ginseng, and milk thistle had nonspecific immunostimulatory effects on lymphocyte proliferation, whereas ginger and green tea had immunosuppressive effects, which were mediated through a decrease in IL-2 production. Wilasrusmee 2002

Structures like [6]-gingerol, zingerone and 3-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)butane, isolated/derived from ginger were established by 1H NMR,13C NMR & mass (EI-MS and ES-MS) spectral analysis & they exhibited moderate insect growth regulatory, antifeedant & antifungal activities. Agarwal 2001

Gingerols, the active components of ginger and related analogues inhibited the arachidonic acid-induced platelet release reaction with IC(50) values between 45.3 and 82.6 microM and human platelet aggregation. Koo 2001

Exposure to ginger root oil (20 microl for 6 h), found to enhance the mating competitiveness of irradiated Ceratitis capitata males of Mediterranean fruit fly, from a 5-yr-old mass-reared strain. Shelly 2001

Among 17 pungent oleoresin principles of ginger, [8]-paradol & [8]-shogaol, and two synthetic analogues includin 3-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)decane showed strong inhibitory effects on cyclooxygenase-2 enzyme with IC(50) values in the range of 1-25 microM. Tjendraputra 2001

The evaluation among 15 different kinds of Bangladeshi medicinal plants for the superoxide-scavenging activity revealed Swertia chirata, Emblica officinalis, Zingiber officinale and Myristica malabarica as superoxide-scavenging samples. Khanom 2000

Examination of fungitoxic effects of higher plant extracts on Fusarium udum, which causes wilt disease of Cajanus cajan in vitro and in vivo, showed that rhizome extracts of Curcuma longa & Zingiber officinale, and a bulb extract of Allium sativum inhibited F. udum growth up to 100%. Singh 2000

Plant derived molluscicides viz. tigogenin, hecogenin, azadirachtin, allicin, thymol, including [6]-gingerol derived from ginger in combination with MGK-264 or piperonyl butoxide reduced fecundity, hatchability & survival of young snails Lymnaea acuminata. Singh 2000

Intragastric administration of Dai-Kenchu-To containing zanthoxylum fruit, ginseng root & dried ginger rhizome, induced contractions in antrum, duodenum & jejunum of mongrel dogs by acting through cholinergic and 5-hydroxytryptamine 3 receptors. Dried ginger rhizome acted only in the antrum. Shibata 1999

In vivo exposure of Lymnaea acuminata to thymol & [6]-gingerol altered different enzyme activities including acetylcholinesterase and lactic dehydrogenase, but sublethal exposure reduced the levels of 5-hydroxytryptamine & dopamine in the nervous tissue of L. acuminata. Singh 1999

The review of molecular mechanisms of chemopreventive effects of selected dietary and medicinal phenolic substances like Curcumin, [6]-gingerol and [6]-paradol shows that they retain antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties which contribute to their chemopreventive or chemoprotective activity. Surh 1999

Spoilage microorganisms in mango juice are inhibited by aqueous extract of ginger (15%, vol/vol) or nutmeg (20%, vol/vol) but taste considered unacceptable. Heating to 55 C for 15 min. plus nutmeg (4%, vol/vol) was was effective and tasted better Ejechi 1998

Rhizoma Pinelliae processed by Ginger juice should be prepared by same amount of Ginger juice with Rhizoma Pinelliae, as the contents of beta-sitosterol of these products were related to the amount of Ginger juice which is added in Pinelliae Rhizoma. [Article in Chinese] Wu 1998

Aspergillus is inhibited better by garlic than ginger Yin 1998

The ginger volatile oil taken as a scavenger was proved to be effective in inhibiting the production of hydrogen peroxide in chondrocytes induced by fulvic acid from Kashin-Beck disease area. [Article in Chinese] Guo 1997

Patch clamp measurement of currents induced by capsaicin, piperine, and zingerone, structurally related pungent compounds, indicate threshold of 0.1 microM, 3 microM & 1 mM, respectively Liu 1996

Analysis of 121 ethnic foods revealed that the highest mycotoxin levels and frequency of occurrence were in chili powder, curry powder and ginger Patel 1996

No genetic change noted with ginger in screening Aspergillus for mitotic crossing-over, chromosome malsegregation or clastogenic effects Ramos 1996

Ephedrine in rhizoma Pinelliae appears to be potentiated by ginger Wu 1996

Human peripheral blood mononuclear cells with ginger ethanol extract, 10-30 mg/ml in vitro, secrete increased IL1 beta, IL6, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor after 18 hours Chang 1995

Radiation sterilization converts terpenes to monoterpenesalcohols. Ginger was sensitive to high doses but less affected by 10 kGy dose sufficient to eliminate micro-organisms Farag 1995

Gingerol inhibits arachidonic induced platelet aggregation, thromboxane B2 and prostaglandin D2 formation, and phosphoinositide breakdown, but not effective for thrombin or platelet-activating factor (PAF) induced aggregation Guh 1995

Ginger, pepper, pippali and mustard increased the number of revertants in a sensitive Salmonella assay indicating their mutagenic potential. Garlic, Asafoetida, tumeric, curcumin & eugenol were protective Soudamini 1995

P450 increased by nutmeg and zanthoxylum oils; decreased by cardamom oil; unaffected by celery seed, cumin seed, coriander, ginger. Hydroxylase activity increased by ginger oil; decreased by nutmeg; unaffected by the others Banerjee 1994

Aflatoxin DNA adducts were suppressed by essential oils of nutmeg, ginger, cardamom, celery, xanthoxylum, black pepper, cumin, and coriander Hashim 1994

Superoxide and hydroxyl radical scavenging by ginger Cao 1993

Superoxide radicals were inhibited by zingerone from ginger, linalool from Coriander, eugenol & cumin. Krishnakantha 1993

Prostaglandin synthetase and arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase are inhibited by gingerols and diarylhepatanoids from ginger Kiuchi 1992

Serotonin bioassay with bovine platelets of feverfew, ginger, wormwood, verapamil & propranolol Marles 1992

Liver metabolism of 1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-deca-4-ene-3-one (shogaol), a pungent principle of ginger Surh 1992

Ginger fails to inhibit drug-induced mutagenicity whereas garlic, onion, tomato & cucumber do so Zhao 1992

Antioxidant activity of ginger and 49 other ethanol extracts Zhou 1992

Schistosoma infectivity abolished completely by gingerol (5.0 ppm). Gingerol and shogaol have potent molluscicidal activity on Biomphalaria glabrata Adewunmi 1990

Iontropic effect on heart by [8]-Gingerol was abolished by ryanodine, but little affected by propranolol, chlorpheniramine, cimetidine, tetrodotoxin, diltiazem or reserpine Kobayashi 1988

Arachidonic acid biotransformation was inhibited by root aqueous extracts of ginger, Paeonia, Scutellaria, Rheum, indomethacin or by serum from rats treated 1 hour with Coptis, Paeonia or indomethacin Umeda 1988

Cytotoxicity (and inhibition of thymidine uptake) to lymphoma, human lymphocytes, CHO & Vero cells by herbs: ginger > pippali > pepper > garlic > asafetida > mustard > horse-gram Unnikrishnan 1988

"A uterine relaxant compound from Zingiber cassumunar" (no abstract) Kanjanapothi 1987

Sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-pump and Ca2+-ATPase activities were stimulated by gingerol (3-30 microM) Kobayashi 1987

Gingerol and shogaol were mutagenic while zingerone was not in the sensitive Salmonella assay Nagabhushan 1987

Thromboxane synthetase inhibition and prostacyclin stimulation without a rise in PEG2 or PGF2a by ginger; a review Backon 1986

Arachidonate induced thromboxane formation and platelet aggregation was inhibited by ginger extract Srivastava 1986

(6)-shogaol activity is similar to capsaicin in regards to blood pressure, bradycardia and aponea Suekawa 1986

Micrococcus luteus was the only one of a set of microorganisms inhibited by ginger. E.coli, Salmonella, Vibrio, Pseudomonas, Proteus, Staphylococcus, Mycobacterium, Streptococcus, Bacillus unaffected Chen 1985

Platelet aggregation induced by ADP, epinephrine, collagen and arachidonate inhibited by onion, garlic and ginger in a dose-dependent manner in vitro Srivas 1984

Mutagenic activity of [6]-gingerol is attributed to the aliphatic hydroxy group based on comparison with [6]-Shogaol, curcumin, myristic, stearic & oleic acids Nakamura 1983

Ascaris lumbricoides anthelmintic action by Zingiber zerumbeth, cinnamon, and others Raj 1975

Analytical Chemistry

Changes in the yields of the oleoresin and content of pungent bioactive principles: [6], [8], [10] gingerols and [6] shogaol of Jamaican ginger (Zingiber officinale) were investigated during different stages of maturity (7-9 months). Bailey-Shaw 2008

Five compounds were isolated from the dried rhizomes of Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae) through repeated column chromatography. Their chemical structures were elucidated as 4-, 6-, 8-, and 10-gingerols, and 6-shogaol using spectroscopic analysis. Kim 2008

14 compounds, including -gingerol (1,2,3,4 ) -paradol (5) and -shogaol( 6) were isolated by bioactivity-guided fractionation of Zingiber officinale. Koh 2008

GC-MS coupled with a chemometric method was developed for analysis of active components in volatile oil from a Chinese herb formulation, "Shao-Fu-Zhu-Yu Decoction" which includes Zingiber officinale. Su 2008

Three new diarylheptanoids and one new monoterpenoid were isolated from the rhizomes of Zingiber officinale together with four known diarylheptanoids, 5-8. Their structures were elucidated mainly by spectroscopic methods. Tao 2008

By investigating diarylheptanoids in Zingiberaceae plants using liquid chromatography /electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, 26 diarylheptanoids were identified from fresh ginger rhizome. Jiang 2007

The liquid chromatographic determination of 6-, 8-, 10-gingerol, and 6-shogaol in dried ginger (Zingiber officinale) and in the dried aqueous extract of ginger is reported. Lee 2007

Report on evaluation of heavy metals and organochlorine pesticide residue in Zingiber officinale Rosc. collected from different ecological zones of India. Mishra 2007

A sensitive and accurate High-Performance TLC (HPTLC) method was developed to determine the quantity of 6-gingerol in rhizomes of Zingiber officinale. Recovery values from 99.79 to 99.84% showed the excellent reliability and reproducibility of the method. Rai 2006

Improved solvent-free microwave extraction (SFME) was a feasible means of extracting essential oils from dried plant materials, because there were few differences between the composition of the essential oils extracted by improved SFME and by the other methods. Wang 2006

Australian ginger oil possesses a particular "lemony" aroma, due to high content of citral. Fresh rhizomes of 17 clones of Australian ginger, including commercial cultivars & experimental tetraploid clones, were steam distilled 7 weeks post-harvest, & the resulting oils analyzed by GC-MS. Wohlmuth 2006

Twenty naturally infected ginger rhizomes displaying visible mold growth were examined to identify the fungi and to evaluate the presence of their secondary metabolites. Penicillium brevicompactum was the predominant species isolated from 85% of the samples. Overy 2005

Using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry 140 & 136 components were separated and that 74 & 75 of them were tentatively identified, which accounted for about 62.82 & 47.11% of the total relative content for dried & fresh ginger, respectively. Gong 2004

Seven new diarylheptanoids, including, (3S,5S)-3,5-diacetoxy-1,7-bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)heptane was isolated from the rhizomes of Zingiber officinale, along with 25 known compounds. Their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic and chemical methods. Ma 2004

The substituents on alkyl chain of gingerol related compounds contribute to radical scavenging & inhibitory effect of autoxidation of oils, but inhibitory effects against 2,2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane)dihydrochloride-induced peroxidation of liposome was influenced by alkyl chain length. Masuda 2004

The total phenolics of 10 plant drugs including ginger & rosemary were determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu method, ranged from 24.8 to 92.5 mg of chlorogenic acid equivalent/g dry material. Rababah 2004

Headspace GC using standard addition method has been developed for the simultaneous determination of organic solvents in natural flavorings like ginger oleoresin with repeatability & reproducibility standard deviations ranged from 4.3 to 11.4% & 8.4 to 19.0% respectively. [Article in Japanese] Sato 2004

The isolation, purification and characterization of gingerol, the major pungent constituent of ginger (Zingiber officinale) and its kinetic of extraction using a number of organic solvents was carried out. Shadmani 2004

Main sesquiterpene hydrocarbons of ginger oil prepared from fresh rhizomes of Zingiber officinale was determined by gas chromatography & GC-mass spectrometric techniques and identified as alpha-zingiberene (27-30%), alpha-curcumene (8-9%), beta- sesquiphellandrene (4.8%) & bisabolene (3.2%). Antonious 2003

Ginger, black pepper, and chili powder were extracted using near-critical carbon dioxide, propane, and dimethyl ether. The pungency of the extracts was determined by using a newly developed NMR technique & all solvents quantitatively extracted the gingerols from ginger. Catchpole 2003

A bioassay-guided isolation of antifungal compounds from Zingiber officinale Roscoe, led to the identification of [6], [8] and [10]-gingerols and [6]-gingerdiol as the main antifungal principles and were active against 13 human pathogens at concentrations of <1mg/mL. Ficker 2003

Five sulfonated compounds, namely 4-gingesulfonic acid and shogasulfonic acids A, B, C & D, were isolated together with seven known compounds including 6-gingesulfonic acid from Zingiberis rhizome. Structures were characterized by means of spectroscopic analysis. Hori 2003

On-line and off-line HPLC-NMR analysis of a methanolic extract of powdered ginger yielded spectra for vanillin, dihydroferulic acid, zingerone and ferulic acid. Dihydroferulic acid and zingerone were confirmed by mass spectroscopy. Saha 2003

Serotonin, tryptamine, and melatonin were reported to be found in some edible and medicinal plants in Egypt. Among them corn, rice, barley grains, and ginger showed the highest concentrations of melatonin, at 187.8, 149.8, 87.3, 142.3 ng/100 g, respectively. Badria 2002

Glutathione peroxidase, from commercial bovine erythrocytes or ammonium sulfate fractionations of ginger rhizome, was detected on polyacrylamide gels after native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or sodium dodecyl sulfate. Lin 2002

The HPLC method was found to be appropriate for the determination of 6-gingerol in Rhizoma Zingiberis Recens. The contents of 6-gingerol were 1.35-2.87 mg.g-1, and the water contents were 70.4-85.5% mL.g-1. [Article in Chinese] Wang 2002

In an ethnomedical, chemical and pharmacological review of ginger, the volatile components, presence of trace metals, details of individual medicinal activities, the molecular structures of identified organic metabolites and their synthesis are described. Afzal 2001

Using Nd:YAG laser excitation at 1,064 nm together with a special sample arrangement and interferometric recording, the main valuable substances of 6 species including ginger (Zingiber officinale) were analyzed non-destructively by Raman spectroscopy. Andreev 2001

Micro-elements, such as Sr, Ba, Fe, Al, Cu, Cr, Zn, Mo, Ni, Co, Mn, Cd, Mg, in six condiments including ginger, were determined through atomic absorption detector & the rate of reclamation of ginger was about 90%-108%. [Article in Chinese] Huang 2001

The essential oil composition of Zingiber officinale was analysed by GC, GC-MS, and (13)C-NMR and it showed antimicrobial activity against all Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria,yeasts and filamentous fungi. Martins 2001

Three geraniol glycosides including geranyl 6-O-alpha-L-arabinopyranosyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside were isolated and identified by spectrometric analyses and were found to be related to the formation of geraniol-related compounds in ginger aroma. Sekiwa 2001

A new gingerdione has been isolated from the rhizomes of Zingiber officinale and identified as 1-dehydrogingerdione. Charles 2000

Among 2 ginger proteases (GP-I and GP-II), the complete amino-acid sequence of GP -II, a glycoprotein containing 221 amino acids, and about 98% that of GP-I have been analysed by electrospray and collision-induced dissociation MS. Choi 2000

The review on phenolic antioxidants from herbs and spices revealed that over 40 antioxidative compounds were determined from Zingiber officinale and 26 compounds from Curcuma species. Nakatani 2000

2 new glucosides of 6-gingerdiol including 5-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-3-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-phenyl) decane were isolated from ginger and structures determined by HRFAB-MS and NMR analyses. It showed antioxidative activity in linoleic acid model system & DPPH radical-scavenging activity. Sekiwa 2000

Three-dimensional structure of a cysteine protease from ginger rhizome (GP-II) has been determined by X-ray crystallography to a resolution of 2.1 A and overall structure of GP-II was found to be similar to that of homologous cysteine proteases papain, actinidin & glycyl endopeptidase. Choi 1999

Two bacteriocin-producing bacterial strains isolated from garlic and ginger root by the agar overlay method were identified by 16S rRNA sequence analyses & fermentation patterns. The molecular mass values of bacteriocins were found to be 3.7 kDa and 3.9 kDa. Janes 1999

Quality evaluation of essential oils from dried rhizomes of Zingiber officinale extracted by supercritical-CO2 fluid (SFE-CO2) and traditional water still distillation methods, showed that SFE-CO2 contains 49 constituents, such as 6-paradol. [Article in Chinese] Shi 1999

A method of zingiberene isolation from a sesquiterpene-enriched fraction of ginger oil by derivitization and flash chromatography Millar 1998

Probing for chemical changes when ginger and 14 other foods are irradiated for preservation Yang 1998

Sixty-six chemical components including camphene, beta-phellandrene and 1,8-cineole were identified from the essential oil of Rhizoma Zingiberis and the contents were determined by GC-MS. [Article in Chinese] Zhou 1998

Proteases extracted from ginger root by acetone & chromotography, are 29 kD, and inhibited by divalent metal ions Ohtsuki 1995

Sesquiterpenes were isolated from ginger root. Beta-sesquiphellandrene [2] has an IC50 of 0.44 microM vs. rhinovirus IB in vitro Denyer 1994

Shogaols and gingerols isolated from ginger root methanol extract and biphenyls from Magnolia for anti-nausea activity. Some phenyl-propanoids with allyl side-chains have the same activity Kawai 1994

Shogaol [1-(4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl)-deca-4-ene-3-one], a major pungent component of ginger, metabolites followed by HPLC & GC/MS Surh 1994

Gingerol metabolism by rat liver Surh 1994

6-gingesulfonic acid, and three monoacyldigalactosylglycerols, gingerglycolipids A, B, and C, isolated from ginger root and their pungency and anti-ulcer activity Yoshikawa 1994

(E)-8 beta,17-epoxylabd-12-ene-15,16-dial inhibits cholesterol biosynthesis in rat liver Tanabe 1993

6, 8, 10-gingerol, 6,8-shogaol, 6-dehydrogingerdione, and galanolactone analyzed by HPLC & GLC vary with country of origin Yoshikawa 1993

Beta-sesquiphellandrene, beta-bisabolene, ar-curcumene and 6-shogaol were identified as anti-ulcer active principles in ginger by testing on rats. (3S,5S)-dihydroxy 1-(4'-hydroxy-3',5'-dimethoxyphenyl)-7-(4''-hydrox y-3''-methoxyphenyl)heptane is reported Yamahara 1992

Galanolactone, diterpenoid from ginger, inhibits ileum contractile responses to serotonin, with pIC50 of 4.9. The relaxing effect of galanolactone was about 1/10 of that of papaverine Huang 1991

Anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of Zingiber cassumunar are attributed to (E)-1-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)but-1-ene Ozaki 1991

25 constituents were found by GC-MS-DS in fresh ginger, 23 in roasted ginger, 22 in dry ginger Ye 1989

4-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)butan-2-one (zingerone) is largely excreted in 24 hour urine, mainly as glucuronide and/or sulphates. Some is reduced to the carbinol; some oxidized to C6-C2 metabolites. Entero-hepatic cycling occurs Monge 1976

A validated method for detecting Gingerols and Shogaols in Zingiber offinale (Ginger) by HPLC. Institute for Nutraceutical Advancement

HPLC chromatogram of Gingerols and Shogaols in Zingiber offinale (Ginger). Institute for Nutraceutical Advancement

Pharmacokinetics (ADME)

Ginger significantly decreased the oral bioavailability of cyclosporine in rats, and the interaction occur at the absorption phase. Chiang 2006

The accumulation of daunorubicin in KB-C2 cells increased in the presence of capsaicin, curcumin, [6]-gingerol, and resveratrol in a concentration-dependent manner and was found to have inhibitory effects on P-glycoprotein and potencies to cause drug-food interactions. Nabekura 2005

Experimental findings indicated that Trikatu pretreatment, an Ayurvedic formulation comprising 3 drugs including dried rhizomes of Zingiber officinale, decreased the bioavailability of diclofenac sodium, through a drug-herb interaction, thereby adversely affecting its therapeutic efficacy. Lala 2004

The total cumulative amount of (S)-[6]-gingerol-4'-O-beta-glucuronide excreted in the bile and 6 minor metabolites in the urine during 60 h after the oral administration of [6]-gingerol were approximately 48% and 16% of the dose, respectively in rats. Nakazawa 2002

[6]-gingerol over the concentration range of 0.2-40 micrograms/ml to rat has halflife of 7.2 min. and total body clearance of 16.8 ml/min/kg. Serum protein binding of [6]-gingerol was 92.4%. Ding 1991

Ginger & pepper, pungent acrid components of many Ayurveda preparations, were shown to increase bioavailability of vasicine & sparteine Atal 1981

Genetics & Molecular Biology

DNA-based markers that can be applied for the identification and differentiation of the commercially important plant Zingiber officinale Roscoe from the closely related species Z. zerumbet (pinecone, bitter or 'shampoo' ginger) and Z. cassumunar was developed. Chavan 2008

The changes in transcript levels of 41 genes in the highly susceptible ginger cultivar varada, a less susceptible wild accession (wild ginger), and a Pythium aphanidermatum-resistant relative, Z. zerumbet, following treatment with Pythium aphanidermatum. Kavitha 2008

The genetic stability of micropropagated clones of Zingiber officinale cv. Suprava was evaluated at regular intervals of 6 months up to 24 months in culture using cytophotometric estimation of 4C nuclear DNA content and random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis. Mohanty 2008

The isolation and molecular analysis of R-gene in resistant Zingiber officinale (ginger) varieties against Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. zingiberi was carried out. Swetha Priya 2008

The isolation and characterization of resistance gene candidates from ginger and its wild relatives, which will serve as a potential resource for future improvement of this important vegetatively propagated spice crop for the first time. Aswati Nair 2007

Amorpha-4,11-diene synthase from Artemisia annua and (+)-germacrene synthase from Zingiber officinale, the recombinant plant sesquiterpene synthases were expressed in Escherichia coli under different conditions to optimize the yield of active soluble protein. Picaud 2007

Phylogenetic analysis and metabolic profiling were used to investigate the diversity of plant material within the ginger species and between ginger and closely related species in the genus Zingiber. Jiang 2006

13 Herb extracts including Zingiber officinale, Rheum palmatum, commercially used in Asia were screened for their estrogenic activity with a recombinant yeast system with both a human estrogen receptor expression plasmid and a reporter plasmid. Kang 2006

A cDNA clone encoding a sesquiterpene synthase, (+)-germacrene D synthase, has been isolated from Zingiber officinale and the full-length cDNA (AY860846) contains a 1650-bp open reading frame coding for 550 amino acids (63.8kDa) with a theoretical pI=5.59. Picaud 2006

Topical application of [6]-gingerol inhibited phorbol 12-myrist 13-acetate -induced cyclooxygenase -2 expression, suppressed NF-kappaB DNA binding activity in mouse skin and inhibited the phoshorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. Kim 2004

Zerumbone, a sesquiterpene compound, in tropical ginger Zingiber zerumbet Smith, potentiated the gene expression of several Nrf2/ antioxidant response element -dependent phase II enzyme genes, including gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase, glutathione peroxidase & hemeoxygenase-1. Nakamura 2004

It is found that Ralstonia solanacearum strains isolated from ginger (Zingiber officinale) in Hawaii was determined by analysis of amplified fragment length polymorphisms. Yu 2003

Adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate phosphodiesterase inhibition by ginger and 58 other Chinese herb medicines Suzuki 1991

Cytochrome enzymes P450 and b5 are stimulated by ginger, fenugreek and cumin. NADPH-cytochrome c reductase and glucuronyl transferase are unaffected Sambaiah 1989



FORMULAS/BLENDS

Methods of Preparation

In gingerbread, both acrylamide concentration and browning intensity increased with baking time and correlated with each other. The use of sodium hydrogencarbonate as baking agent reduced the acrylamide concentration by >60%. Amrein 2004

The evaluation of antioxidant capacity of some spices consumed in Central Italy relevant to nutrition reveals that among the spices tested, cumin and fresh ginger made the most contribution to the antioxidant capacity. Ninfali 2005

Conventional and high-intensity ultrasound-assisted solvent-extracted Thai spices, including ginger, fingerroot & turmeric offered a new tool to optimize extraction of spice essential oil for use as antimicrobial agents and reduce processing time & costs. Thongson 2004

Ginger oil was found to be potential as a protectant of tomato seedlings against Bemisia argentifolii on tomato. Zhang 2004

The techniques of refrigeration, rapid freezing, 60Co gamma-ray sterilization, freeze-drying and spray-drying were found to be suitable for preservation of squeezed juice of Ginger and Glutinous Rehannia. [Article in Chinese] Yang 2003

The stability investigation of gingerol and shogaol in aqueous solutions revealed that gingerol exhibited novel reversible kinetics, in which it undergoes dehydration-hydration transformations with shogaol, the major degradation product. Bhattarai 2001

3% Ginger extract treatment increased the pH, moisture, cooking yield, total pigments, water holding capacity, collagen solubility, protein extractability, muscle fibre diameter, decreased the shear force values and found optimum for tenderization in spent hen meat. Naveena 2001

In 126 samples obtained from retail shops, Ochratoxin A contamination which was estimated using indirect competitive ELISA was found to exceed 10 microg/kg in 14 of 26 black pepper samples,20 of 50 coriander samples, 2(23 microg/kg & 80 microg/kg) of 25 ginger & 9 of 25 turmeric samples. Thirumala-Devi 2001

The guanosine contents in various products of Pinellia Rhizoma processed by different amounts of ginger and alum were compared and it was found that the processing technology has considerable influence on the water soluble components of Pinellia Phizoma. [Article in Chinese] Wu 1998

Acetone and ethanol extracts of ginger are more effective antiememtics than aqueous extract in cisplatin treated dogs but ineffective in apomorphine-induced emesis Sharma 1997

Liver amoebiasis cure rate of 73% in hamsters given 800 mg/kg/day of a mixture of Boerhavia diffusa, Tinospora cordifolia, Berberis aristata, Terminalia chebula and ginger. Also, cell-mediated immune response was stimulated Sohni 1996

Beta-cyclodextrin stabilizes ginger oil for storage Li 1992

It is possible to distinguish irradiated from fumigated spices but not from heat-treated ones Manninen 1991

Aflatoxin detection in ginger, peanuts & cottonseed by negative ion chemical ionization mass spectrometric Park 1985

Review monograph of the chemistry, commerce, processing, production, etc. Govindarajan 1982

Aflatoxin determination in ginger by 1-dimensional thin layer chromatography Trucksess 1980

Elimination of light contamination from ginger powder Dent 1977

Patents

Conduct a search on "zingiber officinale" or "ginger" in the title, abstract or claims section of the US patent database

Composition for inducing or stimulating secretion of insulin-like growth factor-1, made of (a) pharmaceutically effective amounts of an extract selected from Phlomis umbrosa, Cynanchum wilfordii, Zingiber officinale, Platycodi Radix and combination thereof and (b) a pharmaceutical acceptable carrier US Patent 6,984,405

Pharmaceutical composition useful for the treatment of hyperlipidemia, comprising extracts of Gentiana kurroo, Murraya koenigii, Allium sativum, Zingiber officinalis, Amorphophallus campanulatus and pharmaceutically acceptable additive(s) US Patent 6,989,165

Nutraceutical herbal formulation(s) for diabetics comprises the base product of microwave roasted seed powders mixture fortified with herbs/medicinal plants US Patent 7,014,872

Medicinal composition for treating pain resulting from an inflammatory response comprises at least one pain relieving and anti-inflammatory pharmaceutical and at least one nutraceutical in a pharmaceutically acceptable base US Patent 6,841,544

Herbal composition effective against pyloric ligation induced ulcer model and histamine induced ulcer model comprising an extract obtained from Aegle marmelos, Withania somnifra and at least one other herb from those listed, including Zingiber officinale US Patent 6,855,347

External skin care composition comprising a ceramide production-accelerating agent and a film-forming polymer which enhances the barrier function of the skin and has an excellent skin roughness-improving effect US Patent 6,878,378

Anti-neoplastic compositions containing certain Chinese medicinal herbs; extensive testing indicates an effective treatment rate of 69.7% and 84.3% when used in combination with radiotherapy or chemotherapy US Patent 6,911,221

Method of treating a patient suffering a disease associated with Trichophyton mentagrophytes or Pityrosporum ovale by applying topically an anti-fungal pharmaceutical composition which is prepared from Zingiber officinale US Patent 6,946,153

Effective amounts of a boswellic acid, a curcuminoid, a gingerol, a capsaicinoid, a bioflavonoid, and a vitamin C source, in various combinations, all preferably from a botanical source, are blended to form a dose for oral administration for the relief from pain and inflammation of connective tissue US Patent 6,949,250

Pharmaceutical preparations for the treatment of migraine containing plant-based components and/or preparations of Tanacetum parthenium in combination with Vitex agnus castus and/or Cimicifuga racemosa and/or Zingiber officinale as their pharmaceutically active ingredients US Patent 6,967,033

Dietary supplements and methods for treating pain and inflammation US Patent 6,713,096

Creamy, stable homogeneous antiperspirant/deodorant composition US Patent 6,719,966

Herbal antiallergic composition of extracts from the fruits of Terminalia chebula, bark of Albizia lebbeck, Terminalia bellerica and Emblica officinalis which also contains the fruits of Piper longum, Piper nigrum and of rhizomes of Zingiber officinale US Patent 6,730,332

Antiperspirant compositions containing film-forming polymers US Patent 6,759,032

Medicinal composition for treating the symptoms of colds, flu, allergies, or sinus discomfort containing an effective amount of an antihistamine pharmaceutical and an immune boosting nutraceutical in a pharmaceutically acceptable base US Patent 6,759,062

Medicinal composition for treating a cold or the flu containing an effective amount of a pain relieving and anti-inflammatory pharmaceutical and an immune boosting nutraceutical in a pharmaceutically acceptable base US Patent 6,787,164

Medicinal composition for cough containing an effective amount of a pain relieving and anti-inflammatory pharmaceutical and an immune boosting nutraceutical in a pharmaceutically acceptable base US Patent 6,793,942

Herbal pharmaceutical composition comprising the root of scutellaria, the rhizome of coptis, the root and rhizome of rhubarb, and the dry powders of the root of ginseng (or American ginseng) or the rhizome of ginger is effective in prevention or treatment of cardiovascular diseases US Patent 6,793,944

Method for prevention or therapy of pollen allergy, allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, asthma or urticaria by administration of two crude drugs (seeds of Cucurbita moschata and flowers of Carthamus tinctorius) and at least one crude drug selected from a group including Zingiber officinale US Patent 6,811,796

Nutritional supplement for providing, and for promoting the health of salivary glands and/or supporting normal or healthy swallowing includes ingredients obtainable from turmeric, ginger, and horseradish US Patent 6,827,945

Composition for treating inflammation and pain of connective tissue contains effective amounts of a boswellic acid, a curcuminoid, a gingerol, a capsaicinoid, a bioflavonoid, and a vitamin C source, in various combinations, all preferably from a botanical source, blended for oral administration US Patent 6,534,086

Decoction of a herbal mixture, comprising rhubarb, red saga root, astragalus, turmeric, and dried ginger and various combinations thereof, provides therapeutic weight loss as well as lipid reduction and change body composition US Patent 6,541,046

Compositions containing aromatic compounds and terpenoids present in alpinia galanga for the treatment or prevention of IgE mediated allergic reactions and conditions and autoimmune disorders, as well as for the alleviation of pain formulated into pharmaceuticals, cosmetics or dietary supplements US Patent 6,566,405

Medicinal composition for treating symptoms of colds, flu, allergies, or sinus discomfort containing an effective amount of a decongestant pharmaceutical and an immune boosting nutraceutical in a pharmaceutically acceptable base US Patent 6,576,267

Composition for treating symptoms such as those of a common cold, a sore throat, congestion, laryngitis, mucous membrane inflammation and sialorrhea includes ingredients obtainable from turmeric extract, ginger root powder, and horseradish root powder US Patent 6,592,896

Treatment for wart and related disorders such as papillomas derived from extracts of pepper, ginger, and related plant species containing vanillyl, and piperidine ring structures US Patent 6,593,371

Nutritional supplement for promoting the health of salivary glands and supporting the normal or healthy swallowing in a person includes ingredients obtainable from turmeric, ginger, and horseradish US Patent 6,596,313

Composition which relieves symptoms caused by edema, cyanosis, blood stasis, neuropathy and related conditions contains one or more of cayenne extract, powdered saffron and essential oil(s) of myrrh, frankincense, cinnamon, and ginger in a carrier oil, preferably safflower oil US Patent 6,607,756

herbal compositions that can prevent or reduce the severity, intensity, or duration of allergic and/or asthmatic symptoms and/or can prevent or delay the development of an allergic or asthmatic response to an antigen US Patent 6,630,176

Use of mixtures comprising at least one of the fatty acids EPA and DHA and the plant Zingiber officinale or parts thereof or an extract or a component thereof for preparing a medicament or a dietary supplement for the suppression of hypersensitivity and/or inflammatory reaction US Patent 6,638,525

Composition for imparting warmth to the skin, especially to the feet includes about 30% to about 80% by volume powdered cayenne pepper, about 10% to about 50% by volume powdered ginger, 0 to about 40% by volume powdered mustard and 0 to about 20% by volume of at least one powdered aromatic substance US Patent 4,324,785

*Folk Blends (component)*
No Records

*Contemporary Mixtures (component)*
No Records



OTHER INFORMATION

Pictures & Distribution Maps

Images at TAMU-BWG

Cultivation, Conservation & Ecology

With solution culture, the effects of silicon (Si) on the plant growth, Si content, photosynthetic rate, and transpiration rate of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc. ) cultivar, Laiwu big ginger was studied. [Article in Chinese] Zhang 2008

The effect of different factors including NAA, PP333, 6-BA & sucrose on induction of microtubers in ginger was studied by tissue culture technique showing that the optimal media to induce microtubers was MS + NAA 1.0 mg x L(-1) + PP333 0.2 mg x L(-1) + sucrose 8%. [Article in Chinese] Xue 2007

An efficient cryopreservation technique for in vitro grown shoots of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc) was developed based on encapsulation dehydration, encapsulation vitrification and vitrification procedures. Yamuna 2007

A study on Metabolic profiling of in vitro micropropagated and conventionally greenhouse grown ginger revealed that the biochemical mechanisms used to produce the large array of compounds found in ginger are not affected by in vitro propagation. Ma 2006

Inoculation of sucrose-agar globule with root exudate on an experimental plant, Zingiber officinale, showed a higher percentage of root colonization (about 10% more) & increases in the number of spores (about 26%) & dry matter (more than 13%) for the 2 vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal spores. Selvaraj 2004

Water stress decreased the chlorophyll contents, stomatic density, and stomatic size of ginger leaves, and reduced the root activity and magnitude of bleeding sap of ginger roots. Under water stress, ginger grew better and yield was higher in shading. [Article in Chinese] Xu 2003

2 bacterial & 13 fungus diseases were found to be common on the zingiberaceous plants and their occurrence & damage as well as control have been investigated in the ginger garden of South China Botanical Garden. [Article in Chinese]. Wu 2002

The microshoots of Zingiber officinale cvs. Suprava, cultured on medium supplemented with NAA induced large number of thin root hairs with friable calluses within 6-7 days and determination of peroxidase activity was found to be useful as a marker for root initiation. Rout 2001

The investigation of geranial generation and geraniol dehydrogenase activity for different maturity stages and storage periods of ginger showed that both were at maximum levels from just after harvesting to initial storage. Sekiwa-Iijima 2001

3 essential oils including ginger oil applied to local bambara groundnut cultivars at rate of 2 mg/20g seed reduced the % of Callosobruchus maculatus adults that emerged from above cultivars in F(1) generation & the number of adult offspring developed in cultivars during 3-month storage period. Ajayi 2000

Radiation treatment (10 kGy) reduced the decrease of the oleoresin content of ginger during the storage period by 14% in unground samples and 11% in ground samples. 6-gingerol content decreased by 70.4% and 44.3% in ground and ungrounded ginger samples respectively at the end of the storage period. Onyenekwe 2000

Related Links

Peppermint in David L. Hoffmann's Herbal Medicine Materia Medica

Taxon information at GRIN

Herbal monograph on Ginger Himalayahealthcare

Monograph on Zingiber officinale Holistic-online

Ginger at HortiPlex

Article Citation of Zingiber NAL

Monograph at NCCAM herbs-at-a-Glance

Scroll down index of herbs to find Rhizoma Zingiberis within the pdf file in WHO monograph



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HISTORY OF RECORD

RESEARCHED BY: Soaring Bear, Ph. D. 1998

RESEARCH UPDATED BY: Michael C. Tims, Ph. D. cand. 2001

REVISED BY: J Mohanasundaram, MD, PhD January, 2009

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