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SCIENTIFIC NAME:
Zingiber officinale Roscoe
FAMILY NAME:
Zingiberaceae
COMMON NAME:
Ginger
  Evidence for Efficacy (Human Data)
   Clinical Trials  (38)
   Observational Studies/Case Reports  (15)
   Traditional and Folk Use  (38)
 Safety Data
   Adverse Effects & Toxicity   (13)
   Interactions   (3)
   Contraindications   (0)
  Evidence of Activity
   Animal Studies  (68)
   Pharmacodynamics  (91)
   Analytical Chemistry  (44)
   Pharmacokinetics (ADME)  (5)
   Genetics & Molecular Biology  (4)
 Formulas/Blends
   Contemporary Formulas   (17)
   Folk Blends   (0)
   Patents   (32)
  Other Information
   Pictures & Distribution Maps  (1)
   Cultivation, Conservation & Ecology  (7)
   Related Links  (8)
 Dynamic Updates
   Live PubMed Searches   (15)
  History of Records
   History of Record (1)
 
 
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EVIDENCE FOR EFFICACY (HUMAN DATA)
 
Clinical Trials
  Four of 6 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) (n = 246) showed superiority of ginger over placebo and aother 2 RCTs (n = 429) indicated that ginger was as effective as the reference drug (vitamin B6) in relieving the severity of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy. Borrelli 2005
  [Ginger: an essential oil for shortening labour?] Calvert 2005
  Continued dosing with ginkgo and ginger at recommended doses for 7 days after administration of the 25 mg dose of warfarin does not affect clotting status, pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics of warfarin in 12 healthy male subjects. Jiang 2005
  The identification of six randomized controlled trials including 538 patients investigating ginger to prevent postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) revealed that ginger is not a clinically relevant antiemetic in the PONV setting. [Article in German] Morin 2004
  A randomized, controlled equivalence trial involving 291 women less than 16 weeks pregnant in Australia showed that ginger was equivalent to vitamin B6 in reducing nausea (mean difference 0.2, 90% confidence interval [CI] -0.3, 0.8), retching (mean difference 0.3; 90% CI -0.0, 0.6) and vomiting. Smith 2004
  Two different oral doses of ginger in a randomized, double-blinded trial failed to reduce the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting in 180 patients who underwent gynecologic laparoscopy. Eberhart 2003
  Ginger was found to reduce hyperglycemia-evoked gastric dysrhythmias in 22 healthy humans, and it acts by blunting the production of prostaglandins rather than inhibiting their action. Gonlachanvit 2003
  Pretreatment with ginger (1,000 and 2,000 mg) in 13 volunteers with a history of motion sickness, in a crossover-design, double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled study effectively reduced the nausea, tachygastric activity, and plasma vasopressin release induced by circular vection. Lien 2003
  Ginger was found to be effective [2 capsules each contain 0.5 g of ginger powder] in prevention of nausea in 80 patients who underwent outpatient gynecological laparoscopy. Pongrojpaw 2003
  Ginger has a mild effect in the treatment of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy in 187 pregnancies and did not increase the rates of major foetal malformations above the baseline rate of 1% to 3%. Portnoi 2003
  The ginger (500 mg) and vitamin B6 (10 mg) reduced the nausea scores from 5.0 (SD, 1.99) to 3.6 (SD, 2.48) and 5.3 (SD, 2.08) to 3.3 (SD, 2.07) respectively in 64 women with nausea and vomiting of pregnancy at or before 16 weeks of gestation. Sripramote 2003
  Treatment of Zintona EC (a ginger extract) in twenty-nine patients (6 men and 23 women) with symptomatic gonarthritis, was as effective as placebo during first 3 months, but at the end of 6 months, ginger extract group showed superiority over placebo group. Wigler 2003
  Treatment of Zintona EC (a ginger extract) in 29 patients (6 men and 23 women) with symptomatic gonarthritis, was as effective as placebo during first 3 months, but at the end of 6 months, ginger extract group showed superiority over placebo group. Wigler 2003
  Ginger extract at 125 mg four times per day for 4 days was found to be a useful treatment option in 120 women less than 20 weeks pregnant, suffering from morning sickness. Willetts 2003
  The ingestion of 1g of ginger in syrup in a divided dose daily was found to be useful in some patients, among the 26 subjects experiencing nausea and vomiting in the first trimester of pregnancy. Keating 2002
  Supplementation of 5 gm of ginger powder with 50 gm of fat meal to 30 healthy adult volunteers, not only prevented the fall in fibrinolytic activity but also increased it. Verma 2001
  Oral ginger 1 g per day for 4 days was found to be effective for relieving the severity of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy in 32 women with 17 weeks' gestation. No adverse effect of ginger on pregnancy outcome was detected. Vutyavanich 2001
  A randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study of ginger extracts and ibuprofen in patients with osteoarthritis of the hip or knee showed a ranking in the order of Ibuprofen>ginger extract>placebo. Bliddal 2000
  Among 6 randomized controlled clinical trials reviewd 2 on postoperative nausea and vomiting suggested that ginger was superior to placebo & equal to metoclopramide. One study each for seasickness, morning sickness and chemotherapy-induced nausea all favoured ginger over placebo. Ernst 2000
  Review of literature indicates that pregnancy associated nausea and vomiting may be helped by ginger but more study needed Aikins 1998
  Post-surgical nausea and vomiting were as effectively treated by 2 gm ginger as 1.25 mg of droperidol in a trial with 120 patients randomly divided Visalyaputra 1998
  4 g daily of ginger powder for 3 months did not affect platelet aggregation induced by ADP and epinephrine but a single 10 gm dose did Bordia 1997
  Serum thromboxane B2 was unchanged after eating 15 gm raw ginger root or 40 gm cooked stem, for two weeks in a randomized placebo-controlled cross-over study of 18 healthy young adults Janssen 1996
  Time of oral exposure to zingerone, an irritant present in ginger is a greater determinant than concentration on whether sensitization or de-sensitization results. Optimal hiatus for desensitization was 5 min Prescott 1996
  Ginger is one of the aromas tested for the relationship between perception and depression in 119 elderly people Satoh 1996
  Gynaecological surgery related nausea was increased by 0.5 or 1 gm of ginger in a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial of 108 patients Arfeen 1995
  Bleeding time, platelet count, thromboelastography and whole blood platelet aggregometry unaffected by 2 gm dried ginger in a randomised double blind study of 8 men Lumb 1994
  Gastric emptying was unaffected by 1 gm ginger in a double-blind crossover trial with 16 healthy volunteers Phillips 1993
  Nausea/vomiting was reduced by ginger (21%) more than by metoclopramide (27%) or placebo (41%) in a randomised, double-blind study of 120 gynaecological surgery patients Phillips 1993
  Platelet aggregation, induced by epinephrine & ADP, was inhibited by adding 5 gm. of dry ginger to fatty meals in a study of 20 healthy men for 7 days. Serum lipids were unchanged. Verma 1993
  Hyper-emesis gravidarum relief provided with 250 mg ginger q.i.d. in a double-blind randomized cross-over trial with 30 patients Fischer-Rasmussen 1991
  Powder ginger (whole root, 500 or 1,000 mg) or fresh ginger root (1,000 mg) provided no protection against motion sickness induced by spinning 28 healthy volunteers whereas scopolamine did help Stewart 1991
  Post-surgical nausea was reduced by ginger or metoclopramide in a study of 60 women in a double-blind, randomised study Bone 1990
  Breech position of pregnancy (28-38th week) was corrected with fresh topical ginger paste nightly for 77% of 113 treated women vs. 52% of 238 untreated women Cai 1990
  Neither the vestibular nor the oculomotor system, both of which are important in motion sickness, were influenced by ginger in a controlled, double-blind study. Therefore, benefit is likely mediated by the gastric system Holtmann 1989
  Platelet thromboxane decreased from 782 to 498 by 5 gm raw ginger daily for 7 days and raised from 910 to 1005 by 70 gm raw onion in female volunteers Srivastava 1989
  Seasickness vomiting and cold sweating were reduced by ginger in a double blind randomized placebo trial with 80 naval cadets Grontved 1988
  Vertigo was reduced by ginger in a double-blind crossover placebo study of 8 healthy volunteers Grontved 1986
Observational Studies/Case Reports
  3 months use of Hochu-ekki-to, one of Kampo formulas containing 7 drugs including Astragalus root and fresh ginger decreased the increased numbers of eosinophils and serum IgE levels in patients with atopic dermatitis resistant to conventional treatment. Kobayashi 2004
  Ginger-associated over anticoagulation was first time reported in a 76 year woman on long-term phenprocoumon therapy with an international normalized ratio (INR) within therapeutic range, and developed an elevated INR up to 10 and epistaxis after using ginger products. Kruth 2004
  Drug-induced hypertension. Handler 2003
  A highly purified and standardized ginger extract reduced symptoms of osteoarthritis (OA) of the knee in 247 evaluable patients with OA of the knee. Altman 2001
  Analysis of a total of 488 surveys (47.4% response rate) on management of nausea & vomiting in pregnancy by obstetrician/gynecologists, showed that treatments recommended by them includes eating frequent small meals (95.5%), taking ginger (51.8%), eliminating iron supplements (50%), etc. Power 2001
  Of the 150 surveys completed, 20 women (13%) used dietary supplements during pregnancy and the most common products were echinacea (4/45, 8.9%), pregnancy tea (4/45, 8.9%), and ginger (3/45, 6.7%) to relieve gastrointestinal symptoms. Tsui 2001
  Case problem: presenting conventional and complementary approaches for relieving nausea in a breast cancer patient undergoing chemotherapy. [No authors listed] 2000
  Reduction of nausea in cancer patients undergoing 8-MOP chemotherapy Meyer 1995
  Ginger moxibustion for impotence (no abstract, Chinese) Liang 1992
  Nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy are effectively treated with Vitamin B6 and ginger Niebyl 1992
  "Pharmacological study of Zingiber officinale (Willd.) Rosc. and its clinical use" (no abstract, review, Chinese) Peng 1992
  Pregnancy associated nausea treated with antihistamines, antiemetics, ginger, change of environment, hypnotherapy and psychotherapy; review Schouenborg 1992
  Arthritis patients report pain relief with powdered ginger. Mechanism suggested to be by inhibiting prostaglandin and leukotriene biosynthesis Srivastava 1992
  A thromboxane synthetase inhibitor such as ginger, which activates endorphin receptors, may be an effective substitute for clonidine for dysmenorrhea Backon 1991
  Kawasaki disease immune hypersensitivity damage to circulation might benefit from thromboxane synthetase inhibitors such as ginger and carbon dioxide Backon 1991
Traditional and Folk Use
  The evaluation of recommendations made by health food store employees in the Phoenix metropolitan area regarding treatment of nausea/vomiting during pregnancy showed that the use of ginger was the most recommended therapy for nausea/vomiting. Buckner 2005
  Fifty-eight out of 191 asthmatic patients attending a public specialty care Chest clinic in Trinidad (30.4%) reported using herbal remedies including ginger, garlic, aloes, shandileer, wild onion, pepper and black sage for symptomatic relief. Clement 2005
  The review of established and experimental therapies that seek to modify and/or even reverse the course of osteoarthritis include such medications as colchicine, bisphosphonates and hormones; dietary therapeutics, such as ginger extract and green tea. Fajardo 2005
  A review of 7 Chinese herbs including Ginger with emphasis on their immunomodulatory and antimicrobial activities revealed that successful derivation of pure bioactive compounds from them supports traditional use of these plants to stimulate the immune system. Tan 2004
  In a qualitative study of self-care in pregnancy, birth and lactation within a non-random sample of 27 women in Canada, 20 women (74%) experienced pregnancy-induced nausea and among them 10 women used anti-emetic herbal remedies, like ginger, peppermint, and Cannabis. Westfall 2004
  Zingiber officinale (ginger). Monograph. [No authors listed] 2003
  [Ginger as an antiemetic during pregnancy.] Blumenthal 2003
  [Chemoprevention: eat ginger, rub on pomegranate.] Burton 2003
  Commonly used herbs. Cuddy 2003
  [Nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy.] Jewell 2003
  In the review of the use of alternative medicine in the treatment of hepatitis C, it has been shown that some patients with hepatitis C take St. John's Wort and ginger to treat the side effects caused by interferon therapy. Bean 2002
  Ginger is used in many cultures to treat the symptoms of nausea and vomiting, but no trials have been established on its safety for use during pregnancy. But its efficacy has been documented in 2 randomized, blinded controlled trials. Chandra 2002
  The study of herbal supplements, indications, clinical concerns, and safety indicated that most herbal home remedies used for children, include teas made from chamomile, fennel, ginger, or mints. Fugh-Berman 2002
  [Nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy.] Jewell 2002
  Among 211 women who were interviewed to assess vitamin, mineral and herbal use pre-conceptually and in the three trimesters of pregnancy, ginger (20%) and raspberry leaf (9%) were the most frequently used herbal preparations. Maats 2002
  In an overview of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (NVP) with an emphasis on vitamins and ginger it has been shown that ginger reduce NVP. Niebyl 2002
  [Is there a role for ginger in the treatment of osteoarthritis?] Marcus 2001
  [Balneological use of bath concentrate containing xidifon and essential oils from ginger, nutmeg, and sandal].[Article in Russian] Grigor'eva 2001
  [Is ginger root effective for decreasing the severity of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy?] Jackson 2001
  The survey of fura production, which is a staple food for the Fulanis and Hausas reveals that spices are indispensable as an ingredient in fura production with ginger being the single most important spice. Jideani 2001
  In the review of Alternative medicine in the US and Canada it has been shown that garlic and ginger, through both experimental and clinical data, as well as their liberal consumption by man over millennia, appear to be very safe for therapeutic use. Kaul 2001
  [Alternative therapies of morning sickness.] Strong 2001
  [Ginger.] Grant 2000
  [Selections from current literature. Complementary therapies for nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy.] Meltzer 2000
  [Ginger for nausea.] [No authors listed]1999
  This review on the health protective effects of phytochemicals indicated that the foods and herbs with the highest anticancer activity include garlic, soybeans, cabbage, ginger, licorice root, and the umbelliferous vegetables. Craig 1999
  Amoeba (Entamoeba histolytica) treatment with traditional Indian mixture, 500 mg/kg/day, Boerhavia diffusa, Berberis aristata, Tinospora cordifolia, Terminalia chebula and Zingiber officinale, about as effective as 100 mg/kg/d metronidazole Sohni 1995
  Ginger (27%) and honey (25%) are the most common home remedies for cough relief chosen by 200 mothers of sick young children Mishra 1994
  Nitrosamine induced depletion of antioxidants (glutathione, vitamins A, C and E) prevented by Amrita Bindu (which includes pepper, ginger, etc) Shanmugasundaram 1994
  'Trikatu' an Ayurvedic preparation containing black pepper, long pepper & ginger, is part of many treatments and has many activities; a review Johri 1992
  Anisakis larvae (ascaridoid nematode in fish that can sicken human) are destroyed by ginger, which is traditionally eaten with raw fish. Minimal effective dose (micrograms/ml) is 62.5 for [6]-shogaol and 250 for [6]-gingerol Goto 1990
  Survey of 143 rural mothers in India finds 'hot' foods like tea, ginger with honey, were preferred and 'cold' foods like curd, butter milk were restricted during an episode of cough Kapil 1990
  Ayurvedic use for neurological disorders suggests ginger might be useful for migraine headache Mustafa 1990
  Upper digestive tract hemorrhage cured in 7 people by Wen-She decoction which contains: Codonopsis pilosulae, Atractylodes macrocephala, Poria cocos, Glycyrrhiza uralensis, Zingiber officinale, Os sepiae Halloysitum rubrum and Astragalus membranaceus Gong 1989
  Ginger, reported in Ayurvedic and Tibb systems for rheumatic disorders, helped 7 patients Srivastava 1989
  "Changes in multihormones in treating male sterility with acupuncture and indirect moxibustion using ginger slices on the skin" (no abstract, Chinese) Xiong 1986
         See entry at the UCLA Online Archive of American Folk Medicine
         Monograph on Henriette's Herbals website Remington 1918
SAFETY DATA
 
Adverse Effects & Toxicity
  One severe adverse event reported in a study of 15 reports with 777 patients indicated that an abortion occurred in the 12th week of gestation and a total of 136 patients were treated with ginger within the first trimenon of pregnancy without complications. [Article in German] Betz 2005
  Chronic administration of 25 mL Catuama, a mixture of 4 drugs including Zingiber officinale, twice a day during 28 days on healthy human volunteers of both sexes, did not produce any severe adverse reactions or haematological and biochemical changes. Oliveira 2005
  Molluscicidal activity of Lawsonia inermis and its binary and tertiary combinations with other plant derived molluscicides like the oleoresin extracted from rhizome of ginger was studied against Lymnaea acuminata and Indoplanorbis exustus. Singh 2001
  Oral administration of EV.EXT 33, a patented Zingiber officinale extract, to 22 Wistar SPF pregnant female rats, during the period of organogenesis, do not affect reproductive performance, showed no embryotoxic or teratogenic effects at daily doses of up to 1000 mg/kg body weight. Weidner 2001
  Among 55 contact dermatitis patients sensitivity was most seen to ginger (7), nutmeg (5), oregano (4) Futrell 1993
  Of 55 dermatitis patients 7 had positive patch test reaction to ginger Futrell 1993
  Mutagenic assay (Salmonella reverse mutation) was negative for ginger Sivaswamy 1991
  Allergy to ginger is uncommon among patients allergic to birch and/or mugwort pollens and celery Stager 1991
  6 gm ginger or 3/4 gm garlic increases DNA content of human gastric aspirates, indicating increased exfoliation of gastric surface epithelial cells Desai 1990
  LD50 of roasted ginger decoction administered orally is 170.6 +/- 1.1 g/kg, but it is over 250 g/kg with dry ginger. Gastric ulcers in rats are inhibited by roasted but not dry ginger Wu 1990
  Sperm motility and levels increased in animals treated 3 months with ginger, rape or Prunus amygdalus. Body weight increased with rape & Prunus but not ginger. No toxic signs observed Qureshi 1989
  Specific IgE antibodies against coriander, curry, mace, ginger, and paprika found in spice handler who had asthma van Toorenenbergen 1985
  Urinary bladder tumors were increased in female ACI rats fed Zingiber mioga for a year whereas no effect for males nor in female Fischer rats Hirono 1982
Interactions
  The review and characterization of the evidence describing potential interactions between warfarin and garlic, ginger, ginkgo, or ginseng reveals that evidence is lacking for an interaction of warfarin with garlic or ginger. Vaes 2000
  Maximum intensity of zingerone pungency (mouth rinse of 1% at 6-s intervals for 3 min) was reached within the first 20 seconds. Subsequent decline of rated intensity was faster for frequent eaters of hot chili Prescott 1996
  Ginger did not affect protein digestibility of sorghum Pradeep 1991
Contraindications
No Records
 
EVIDENCE OF ACTIVITY
 
Animal Studies
  Treatment of ethanolic extract of Zingiber officinale (200 mg/kg) lowered serum total cholesterol, triglycerides and increased the HDL-cholesterol levels and lowered liver and pancreas thiobarbituric acid reactive substances when compared with pathogenic diabetic rats. Bhandari 2005
  The crude extract of ginger induced a dose-dependent (0.3-3 mg/kg) fall in the arterial blood pressure of anesthetized rats; in guinea pig paired atria, it exhibited a cardiodepressant activity on the rate and force of spontaneous contractions. Ghayur 2005
  Crude extract of ginger induced a dose-dependent fall in arterial blood pressure of anesthetized rats and cardiodepressant activity in guinea pig paired atria. Blood pressure-lowering effect of ginger is mediated through blockade of voltage-dependent calcium channels. Ghayur 2005
  Body weights at 2-8 weeks and final parametrial adipose tissue weights were lowered in mice fed the high-fat diet containing 3% aqueous extract of Zingiber officinale Roscoe than in the controls fed the high-fat diet alone. [Article in Japanese] Han 2005
  Intraperitoneal administration of [6]-gingerol (25 mg/kg-50 mg/kg) produced an inhibition of acetic acid-induced writhing response & formalin-induced licking time in the late phase & at (50 mg/kg-100 mg/kg) it produced an inhibition of paw edema induced by carrageenin. Young 2005
  Pretreatment of mice with extract of ginger rhizome (ZOE) reduced the severity of symptoms of radiation sickness & mortality at all the exposure doses and the ZOE treatment protected mice against gastrointestinal-related deaths as well as bone-marrow-related deaths. Jagetia 2004
  Assessment of the therapeutic effects of Kampo formulas, in 95 patients with recalcitrant atopic dermatitis revealed that the most commonly used formula was Hochu-ekki-to containing 7 drugs including Astragalus root, liquorice, jujube, ginseng, fresh ginger & Chinese Angelica root. Kobayashi 2004
  The anti-inflammatory activity of Aller-7, a formulation containing 7 medicinal plants including Zingiber officinale, was determined in compound 48/80-induced paw edema in Balb/c mice & Swiss Albino mice, carrageenan-induced paw edema and Freund's adjuvant-induced arthritis in Wistar Albino rats. Pratibha 2004
  It was found that 'Trikatu' (a herbal combination containing Piper longum, P.nigrum & Zingiber officinale dry powder) by virtue of its ability to reduce triglycerides & LDL cholesterol and to increase HDL cholesterol can reduce the risk of hyperlipidaemia & atherosclerosis in Rattus norvegicus. Sivakumar 2004
  Cholesterol feeding (0.3g/kg body weight) for 75 days lead to development of atheroma in the aorta & coronary arteries of the rabbits and this was inhibited by about 50%, following the administration of air dried ginger powder (0.1g/kg body weight). Verma 2004
  Pretreatment with zerumbone, a sesquiterpene obtained from Zingiber zerumbet Smith lowered levels of inflammatory biomarkers like interleukin -1beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and prostaglandin2 in female ICR mice which were induced acute colitis by 5% dextran sodium sulfate. Murakami 2003
  Treatment with Zingiber officinale increased insulin levels and decreased fasting glucose levels in streptozotocin -induced type I diabetic rats. It also decreased serum cholesterol,serum triglyceride and blood pressure in diabetic rats. Akhani 2003
  Pretreatment with hydroalcoholic extract of ginger rhizome in mice after whole-body exposure to gamma radiation, reduced the severity of radiation sickness, mortality & protected mice from GI syndrome & bone marrow syndrome. Elevation in lipid peroxidation & depletion of glutathione were lessened. Jagetia 2003
  In the evaluation of comparative hypoglycaemic activity of 30 medicinal plants selected from folk medicines, Ayurvedic, Unani & Siddha systems of medicines, 24 samples including Zingiber officinale, (250 mg/kg) lowered blood glucose within 2 weeks in alloxan diabetic albino rats. Kar 2003
  Male adult Wistar rats fed with diet containing 2% and 5% ginger, increased glutathione peroxidase and reduced lipid peroxides in hyperlipidemia rats' blood and such antioxidative effect may play role in attenuation of development of atherosclerosis. [Article in Chinese] Liu 2003
  Pre-treatment of mice for seven days with ginger extracts orally before exposure to sodium arsenite (2.5 mg/kg body wt. p.o.) resulted in a reduction of the magnitude of formation of micronuclei in polychromatic erythrocytes of the bone marrow. Odunola 2003
  Crude extract of Zingiber officinale 0.6 mg & 1.8 mg/site and 186 mg/kg(-1) body wt. i.p. reduced rat skin edema induced by compound 48/80, serotonin and by carrageenan respectively. Administration of alcoholic ginger extract i.p. also inhibited rat paw edema induced by the above compounds. Penna 2003
  In the investigation of gastric emptying effect of the aqueous extract of xiao-ban-xia-tang in mice it was indicated that the aqueous extract of Pinellia ternata, but not that of Zingiber officinale showed an inhibitory activity on gastric emptying. Chen 2002
  The aqueous extract of Zingiber officinale at a dose of 600 mg kg(-1) day(-1) for 8 days increased the relative weight of the testis, the serum testosterone level, testicular cholesterol level and epididymal a-glucosidase activity. Kamtchouing 2002
  The chronic treatment of hot water extract of Bitter Melon (0.5%) or Ginger (0.125%) in drinking water, to the SHN virgin mice, the development of spontaneous mammary tumors was inhibited and there were no adverse effects with these agents. Nagasawa 2002
  Administration of an aqueous extract of ginger, orally or intraperitoneally, daily for a period of 4 weeks to rats, showed that ginger could be used as a cholesterol-lowering, antithrombotic and anti-inflammatory agent. Thomson 2002
  Chronic treatment of 1 mg/kg Zingicomb, a mixture of zingiber officinale and ginkgo biloba extracts in aged rats, improved escape learning in the water maze and the amount of oxidized proteins & lipid peroxidation were reduced. Topic 2002
  The enhanced conditioned inhibitory avoidance by Zingicomb, a combined extract of Zingiber officinale and Ginkgo biloba investigated in adult male Wistar rats, showed potent anxiolytic effect and can facilitate performance on a learning task. Topic 2002a
  The structure-activity relationship of diarylheptanoids and their analogues inhibitory of emesis induced by copper sulfate in young chicks was investigated by testing 19 compounds including 6 analogues isolated from Zingiber officinale rhizome. Yang 2002
  One-hour pretreatment with ginger acetone extracts(100,250 and 500 mg/kg p.o.) in Wistar rats of either sex, weighing between 200-250 g, reversed the pyrogallol-induced delay in gastric emptying. The effect was significant at doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg. Gupta 2001
  The hyperphagic effect of p-chlorophenylalanine, 8-hydroxy-2-(di-N-propylamino)-tetralin, cyproheptadine& 2-deoxy-D-glucose was antagonized by both OB-200G, a polyherbal preparation containing 5 aqueous extracts including Zingiber officinale in female mice. Kaur 2001
  Ginger; 1% w/w lowered lipid peroxidation by maintaining the activities of the antioxidant enzymes--superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase in rats but it increased the blood glutathione content in rats. Ahmed 2000
  Administration of malathion (20 ppm) for 4 weeks induced oxidative stress and concomitant dietary feeding of Zingiber officinales Rosc (ginger 1%, w/w) was found to attenuate malathion induced lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress in albino rats. Ahmed 2000a
  Consumption of 250 microg of standardized ginger extract/day resulted in reductions in plasma triglycerides and cholesterol (by 27 & 29%), reduced the basal level of LDL-associated lipid peroxides by 62% and attenuated development of atherosclerotic lesions in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Fuhrman 2000
  The total 90% ethanol extract of Banxia Houpu Decoction, which consists of 5 drugs including Zingiber officinale was shown to possess an antidepressant activity, evaluated by tail suspension and forced swimming tests in mice, and the effect was close to that of Prozac, a clinically applied agent. Luo 2000
  Repeated administration of Shitei-To, a Chinese herbal Medicine containing 3 extracts including, Zingiber officinale mildly retards development of pentylenetetrazol-induced kindling in mice & decreased number of tonic-clonic convulsions resulting from progression kindling. Minami 2000
  Administration of crude aqueous extracts of ginger and ginger oil by i.p. injection to male mice revealed that ginger oil showed a higher frequency of chromosomal aberrations suggesting that the extract contain substance(s) that suppress clastogenesis in the bone marrow cells of mice. Mukhopadhyay 2000
  Plant materials of Euryale ferox, Phoenix dactylifera and Zingiber officinale which are given to mothers after child birth or to invalids, stimulated humoral immunity to a greater extent than cell-mediated immunity in BALB/c mice. Puri 2000
  The patented standardised ginger extract, EV.EXT33, neither decreases systolic blood pressure nor increases heart rate in the rat, did not interact with Warfarin and had no effects on blood glucose levels at the doses used hence considered pharmacologically safe. Weidner 2000
  Administration of 20 or 50 g/liter ginger tea via the drinking water in pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats resulted in increased early embryo loss with increased growth in surviving fetuses. Wilkinson 2000
  Topical application of [6]-gingerol or [6]-paradol 30 min prior to 12-O-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate attenuated the skin papillomagenesis initiated by 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene in female ICR mice and inhibited the tumor-promoter-stimulated inflammation, & TNF-alpha production. Surh 1999
  Cholesterol and atherosclerosis were reduced when an ethanolic extract of ginger (200 mg/kg, p.o.) was added to a high cholesterol diet fed to rabbits Bhandari 1998
  [6]-gingerol inhibited phorbol/DMBA induced skin cancer and suppressed phorbol (TPA) induced epidermal ornithine decarboxylase activity and inflammation Park 1998
  Gastric emptying problem caused by cisplatin cancer therapy is reversed by ginger juice (@ 2 - 4 ml/kg) better than ondansetron in dogs. Acetone or 50% ethanolic extract @ 100, 200 or 500 mg/kg (p.o.) are less effective Sharma 1998
  Ginger produces detoxification effect in vivo to toxin of Pinellia Rhizoma(PR) by inhibiting increase of capillary permeability in abdominal cavity & also by reducing PGE2 content of inflammatory foot tissue of mice induced by administration of raw PR. [Article in Chinese] Wu 1998
  Combination of garlic and ginger is more effective at improving blood glucose and serum lipids than either alone or placebo in rats Ahmed 1997
  Zingicomb (ginger:ginkgo ratio of 2.5:1) increased maze exploration by rats Hasenohrl 1996
  Dose dependent inhibition of phorbol TPA induced ornithine decarboxylase, cyclooxygenase, and lipoxygenase, markers of skin tumor promotion. Ginger protects against TPA/DMBA induced epidermal edema and hyperplasia in mice Katiyar 1996
  Dietary curcumin, capsaicin, piperine and ginger (50 mg%) enhanced intestinal lipase activity and the disaccharidases sucrase and maltase. Dietary cumin, fenugreek, mustard and asafoetida decreased phosphatases and sucrase Platel 1996
  LiCl reaction in rats (an indicator of antiemetic properties) is reduced by 50 - 100 mg/kg zingicomb (ginger & ginkgo) Frisch 1995
  Gingerol from ginger had activity similar to other capsaicin like stinulators of oxygen uptake Eldershaw 1994
  Joint sweling induced by Mycobacterium was reduced by pretreatment with eugenol and ginger oil orally for 26 days Sharma 1994
  Gingerols are more potent than shogaols at inducing oxygen consumption in muscles. Potency is correlated with vasoconstriction; inversely correlated with alkyl chain length; unrelated to catecholamine or adrenergic receptors Eldershaw 1992
  Immunoreactive substance P (ISP) was increased by (6)-Shogaol, 30-1000 microM dose dependently and depends on calcium ions. Capsaicin induced release of ISP is inhibited by shogaol Onogi 1992
  Ginger juice increased amplitude and decreased frequency of fundus strip contractions and increased ileum contraction. Ginger shows non-competitive antagonism with acetylcholine and histamine indicating involvement of substance P Qian 1992
  Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) oxidation by liver microsomes inhibited by zingerone from ginger at high concentrations (over 150 microM), curcumin (5-50 microM), turmeric & eugenol (25-150 microM), cloves and capsaicin (25-150 microM) Reddy 1992
  6-gingesulfonic acid from ginger root has more anti-ulcer activity than 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol in rats Yoshikawa 1992
  5 times the normal human intake of ginger, cinnamon, cumin, mustard and tamarind did not lower cholesterol in rats Sambaiah 1991
  Liver cholesterol-7 alpha-hydroxylase, the rate-limiting enzyme of bile acid biosynthesis, was increased by curcumin (turmeric), capsaicin (red pepper), ginger and mustard and unaffected by black pepper or cumin Srinivasan 1991
  Serotonin (5-HT) induced hypothermia & diarrhea is inhibited by ginger extract. This is attributed to [6]-shogaol, which was more potent than [6]-dehydrogingerdione, [8]- and [10]-gingerol Huang 1990
  Gastric ulcers in rats are inhibited by roasted but not dry ginger Wu 1990
  Gastrointestinal time of meal transport reduced by ginger acetone extract at 75 mg/kg, [6]-shogaol at 2.5 mg/kg, or a [6]-, [8]- or [10]-gingerol at 5 mg/kg. Effect is similar to that of metoclopramide and donperidone Yamahara 1990
  Gastric lesions induced in rats by alcohol, alkali, salt, NSAIDs or restraint are alleviated by ginger extract al-Yahya 1989
  Gingerols relaxed muscle and modulate the response to eicosanoids: increasing effect by PGF2 alpha, PGE2, PGI2-Na, and TRK-100, but suppressed the response to PGD2, U-46619, LTC4, LTD4, NA and PhE Kimura 1989
  Blood glucose lowered in rabbits; prostaglandin inhibited in rat leucocytes; gram positive and negative bacteria inhibited; and some inflammation in rats inhibited by ginger Mascolo 1989
  Noradrenaline contractile response inhibited by [6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol. PGF2a induced contraction potentiated by [6]-gingerol and inhibited by [6]-shogaol Pancho 1989
  Catecholamine (esp. epinephrine) secretion from rat adrenal increased by zingerone, capsaicin & piperine (pepper) Kawada 1988
  Gastric lesions induced by ethanol inhibited by acetone extract @ 1000 mg/kg (97%), zingiberene at 100 mg/kg (54%), or 6-Gingerol, the pungent principle, @ 100 mg/kg (55%) Yamahara 1988
  Dirofilaria immitis infected dogs injected with ginger extract had microfilarial concentration in blood reduced by a maximum of 98%, which persisted 55 days after treatment at 83% Datta 1987
  Blood pressure decrease induced by (6)-shogaol is prevented by atropine and vagotomy Suekawa 1986
  6)-Shogaol, a pungent compound in semi-dried ginger but rarely in fresh ginger, inhibited carrageenin-induced swelling, arachidonate induced platelet aggregation and prostaglandin I2 release from rat aorta Suekawa 1986
  Bile secretion increase by ginger attributed to [6]-gingerol and [10]-gingerol Yamahara 1985
  (6)-gingerol or (6)-shogaol show inhibition of spontaneous motor activity, antipyretic, analgesic & antitussive effects, lower blood pressure and prolonged hexobarbital-induced sleeping time Suekawa 1984
Pharmacodynamics
  Investigation among 49 methanol extracts of 37 Malaysian medicinal plant species revealed that 10 species including Zingiber officinale Rosc were potential sources of new platelet-activating factor antagonists & they showed inhibitory effects with IC50 values from 1.2 to 18.4 microg ml(-1). Jantan 2005
  [6]-gingerol, a pungent ingredient of ginger found to inhibit 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate induced cyclooxygenase-2 expression in mouse skin in vivo by blocking the p38 MAP kinase- nuclear factor-kappaB signaling pathway. Kim 2005
  A ginger extract combination was more effective in decreasing chemokine mRNA and chemokine secreted protein levels than its individual components Zingiber officinale or Alpinia galangal in human synoviocytes. Phan 2005
  Three preparations of ginger-processed Rhizoma pinelliae exhibits anti-emetic effect in minks, which is mediated by inhibiting the function of the vomiting center in central nervous system. [Article in Chinese] Zhao 2005
  The pathway that activates the Nuclear transcription factor kappa B can be interrupted by phytochemicals derived from 11 spices including, turmeric (curcumin), and ginger (gingerol). Aggarwal 2004
  Ginger(0.01-1000 microg/ml) inhibited both electrical stimulation (EFS)?and acetylcholine-evoked contractions, but comparatively more potent in inhibiting the contractions induced by EFS in the isolated rat ileum. Borrelli 2004
  Antioxidant efficacy of Aller-7, a novel polyherbal formulation which contains 7 drugs including Zingiber officinale, was investigated by various assays including hydroxyl radical scavenging assay, superoxide anion scavenging assay, 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl radical scavenging assays. D'Souza 2004
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